An Environmental Risk Assessment Environmental Sciences Essay

All over the world, rapid industrial development of metropolitan cities have always resulted in a growth in population and also in the general increase of the size of municipal solid waste generated. The management of municipal solid waste, if not handled properly, will lead to various problems now and in the future. Developed countries in the world have, to a large extent succeeded in handling their waste using various principles and methods. From suitable collection methods to technologically advanced disposal methods, they have made sure that municipal solid waste has been effectively controlled in their cities.

Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about other developing countries of the world. Developing countries such as Nigeria are still battling with municipal solid waste management. As a direct result of the oil boom, Port Harcourt city, the capital of Rivers State, Nigeria (which is the case study of this research work) has experienced a major rural- urban migration. The population has almost tripled over the years. This has, in turn, led to a massive increase in the sheer volume of solid waste generated within the city..

Approximately 168,201 tonnes of solid waste are produced in the city of Port Harcourt every year and waste disposal has not been effectively handled. Residents resort to indiscriminate discarding of their waste at every given opportunity The most common means of waste disposal in the city by the public are mainly by dumping the refuse by the road, burning the refuse in the open air in their compounds, littering it openly on street corners and also dumping them in rivers and streams and drainage systems. These methods of waste disposal contribute greatly to the degradation of the environment in so many ways. However, very little is done to reuse and recycle the solid waste generated. Research shows that a huge percentage of the public do not recycle and reuse their wastes which indicates that the awareness level of the public about reuse and recycling of waste in Port Harcourt city is very low and offers a lot of prospect for improvement.

This study therefore investigates the reasons why proper waste disposal methods are neglected by residents of Port Harcourt. It also seeks to discover why the method of Reuse and Recycle of waste is not getting the awareness and Government support it greatly deserves. Recommendations were made about strategies that will allow the government and stakeholders involved to advance on modern methods of waste Reuse and Recycling as a core aspect of municipal solid waste management in the city. Through the use of data collated via questionnaires, it was gathered that a majority of respondents agree that reuse and recycling of waste can positively impact the environment, create revenue and also employment opportunities. It reconnoitres the link between reuse and recycling of solid waste as a means to create revenue and to ultimately achieve sustainable development in the future.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF STUDY

According to Shah (2000), solid waste is defined as any material that is unwanted or thrown away. The general community views waste as something worthless that should be destroyed or thrown away. As such, proper disposal of waste has constituted huge disposal problems. People commonly dump their household solid waste on the road side, unapproved dumpsites and illegal landfills. This has brought about untold environmental pollution as well as major setbacks in societal development (Mbata 2010). Waste in general is a threat to the environment, because of its negative environmental impacts that result from littering, dumping of wastes illegally, and greenhouse gas emissions (Hosetti 2006). Waste contaminates ground water and can cause serious health hazards if not handled and managed properly.

In developing countries like Nigeria and indeed Africa in general, industrial development has enhanced the problems of rapid urbanization. In Nigeria today, solid waste management is one of the principal problems faced by the state and local government authorities in Nigeria. Solid waste management in Nigeria is basically pigeon-holed by ineffective collection and disposal methods (Ogwueleka 2009). As such, Ogu (2000) observed that solid waste management continues to remain a formidable challenge to most developing countries.

The progression of civilization in developing nations such as Nigeria has greatly enhanced waste generation; making it even more complex to handle (Jayarama, 2011). Owing to the growing population of Nigeria, the volume of waste produced is also increasing in metropolitan cities like Port Harcourt, especially as it is an oil producing area and the exploration of oil has led to an increase in movement of people from rural to urban areas (Odiba, 2009). This rapid expansion of key cities in Nigeria, like Port Harcourt, has led to the dilapidation of the environment mostly by domestic waste (Onyinlola, 2005). According to UNEP (2009) population growth and industrialization has resulted in rapid increase in the types and volume of solid waste generated therein. Research shows that relocation of the people from rural to urban areas does not only increase the revenue of the country, but also increases the total volume of municipal solid waste generated in such areas. (Adedokun, 2009).

Municipal solid waste disposal methods are an aspect that raises serious concern in a third world country such as Nigeria. The common methods of solid waste disposal in some countries especially Nigeria is by landfill, open dumping on the streets, and by burning the waste in backyards or in an open space. Unfortunately, roughly 65% of household wastes are dumped straight into rivers or streams in Nigeria (Rakshit 2009). The use of dumpsites and landfills as waste disposal systems is yet another common means of waste disposal in Port Harcourt, Nigeria. This leads to very negative environmental impacts such as the emission of methane gas which contributes essentially to global warming and also reduces the amount of land available for development (Olowomeye 2010). Dumping of waste in landfills also leads to ground water contamination of the entire surrounding areas. Okosun(2011) also observed that uncontrolled dumping of wastes by roadsides results in various health hazards and reduces the aesthetic quality of the environment. Through research shows that the problems associated with waste disposal can be traced back to the 14th century when the littering of food waste and other solid wastes in the town led to the outbreak of diseases that caused the death of half of the Europeans at the time (Bortoleto 2011).

Over the years, research has continually shown that the main reason for solid waste problems in urban areas of developing nations is due to high population growth rates and the prevailing poverty (Affun 2009). The economic and social growth of a country or city always results in increased production and manufacturing activities. This, in turn, leads to activities that are synonymous with human existence such as production, manufacturing, waste generation and disposal. As a direct result of the processes of manufacturing and disposal of consumables, there is a significant increase of the rate of pollution. This depletes valuable natural resources and also releases toxic energy which pollutes the environment, making sustainable development impossible to achieve.

Sustainability as a word has always been used in our everyday lingo. According to Hideroni (2006) it is defined in a perspective of natural environmental protection, population growth and economic gap between developed and developing countries. Sustainable development entails an environmentally comprehensive, cost effective and socially suitable management of solid waste (Roberts, 2003). Sustainable development is a theory that has to be integrated into the everyday lives of the populace if we want to achieve a better quality of life for our unborn children (Dernbach, 2002). In the recordings of the International Council for Local Initiatives(ICLI),sustainable development is such that provides environmental, social and economic amenities to all citizens of the society without disrupting the capability of the natural built social systems upon which the delivery of these services depend on. The main aim of sustainable development is to regenerate the badly damaged environment and ensure that generations unborn do not face the adverse effects of our neglect on the environment. Therefore, solid waste management with sustainable development in mind encourages countries to generate less waste, re-use most consumables, recycle and try their utmost best to recover and reuse all the waste produced, thereby ensuring that the future generation are not affected by the impacts of the current generation (Mbata 2010). Sustainable development is a concept that needs to be taken into attention for effective waste management. With regards to this, countries all over the world including Nigeria, are striving to achieving sustainability (Hasheela, 2009). Therefore, all necessary steps and precautions should be taken to achieve this goal

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Having a population of over 165million people and an annual growth rate of 5.6%, Nigeria is considered the largest country in Africa. Growth rate of urban areas in Nigeria has increased from 25% in 1975 to 46% in 1995(George,2010) Estimates by the World Bank indicate that by the year 2005, more than 65% of Nigerians would have migrated to urban areas such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Delta, Calabar and Abuja (Alkali, 2005). The cause for this relocation is essentially due to oil exploration activities of oil companies in these areas. As a result of this, the wastes generated from these areas have been on the increase and its disposal and effective management is a huge challenge to the government and municipalities involved. It can be observed that the major problem associated with solid waste management comes about due to the large heaps of refuse dumped illegally by the road sides and market places (Odiba 2003). As horrid as it sounds, it is still common practise in Nigeria to dump waste illegally without thinking of the impact of such practices on our environment. Waste management problems in Nigerian cities according to (Ogwueleka 2009) are typically associated with lack of concern and participation from the general public. He further stated that most of the waste policies are made without putting the public, who are the main waste generators, into thought.

The manner, in which waste is controlled in Port Harcourt, Nigeria (the study area) is a big threat to the environment and can cause health hazards (Hasheela2009). A plethora of health hazards such as malaria fever, typhoid fever, diarrhoea, cholera and even skin diseases have been shown to be the effects of poor waste management in any environment (Guobadia 2011). It is needless to say that ineffective waste management is a big danger to the goal of sustainable development and if no positive advances are made in the area of managing waste, there will be catastrophic, long term environmental impacts on the people now and generations unborn.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

AIM

The principal aim of this project is to examine and discover the various ways how the Reuse and Recycling of Municipal Solid Wastes can lead to sustainable development and revenue generation.

To establish, through comprehensive analysis and statistical analysis that waste Reuse and recycling the most suitable method of Municipal Solid Waste Management in a developing country such as Nigeria and can ultimately lead to Sustainable development.

Objectives

To evaluate the various already existing techniques/methods of Municipal Solid waste collection and disposal in Port Harcourt city and Nigeria as a whole.

To determine, based on an Environmental Risk Assessment, the most significant waste related risk currently in the case study area (Port Harcourt)

To appraise the present level of awareness shown by the public and the current efforts of the government in creating more awareness and providing environmental education to members of the public on efficient, environmental friendly methods of waste disposal such as Reuse and recycling.

To explore the barriers that prevents the reusing and recycling of the major components of Municipal solid waste such as paper waste, plastic waste.

To deal with Solid waste reuse and recycling as important aspects of national economy and environmental as a means of sustainable development and revenue generation.

Research Questions

This study is concerned with achieving sustainable development and potential revenue generation through Reuse and Recycling as a method of Municipal Solid Waste Management. It will seek to answer the following:

Why is there a need to reuse and recycle municipal solid waste?

In what ways can Reuse and recycling of municipal solid waste lead to the achievement of sustainable development?

Can Revenue generation be guaranteed through the continuous use of reuse and recycling as the core method of municipal solid waste management?

1.5 Significance of study

Sustainable development is the ultimate goal of every society and should be pursued with all diligence. This research highlights the significance of municipal solid waste (such as paper glass and plastics) as useful resources through reuse and recycling towards Sustainable development and revenue generation for Port Harcourt city and Nigeria as a country.

1.6 Scope and limitation of study

This project work was limited to only the processes of reuse and recycling of municipal solid waste as a means to sustainable development in Port Harcourt city. Only recyclable waste such as plastics, paper and glass were used as a case study because they are the major waste materials found in municipal solid waste in Port Harcourt. However, all other processes of municipal waste management such as composition, collection, transportation and disposal were also looked to during the course of this research.

1.7 Structure of Study

Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the research, covers the background of the study, discusses its aims and objectives, and also proposes relevant research questions.

Chapter 2 details the literature reviews of municipal waste management, views reuse and recycling as a means for sustainable development and revenue generation, and also the present-day situation of waste management in Nigeria

Chapter 3 shows the methodology employed for achieving the set aims and objectives of the study.

Chapter 4 discusses the results and draws conclusions from the data generated.

Chapter 5 finally discusses the summary findings, shows the researcher’s conclusions and his suggested recommendations for the best way forward.

d recommendations for the best way forward.

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

2.1 Definition of Waste

Waste is a direct consequence of human existence and activity. It can be said to be totally unavoidable. Different definitions of waste abound. It is, however, important to state that the term ‘waste’ is very subjective. This is because, what one person may consider as waste can be viewed as an object of high value by another person.(Ajomo, 2010). A very strict legal definition of waste to comply with the law is therefore necessary; as such firm definitions of waste have legal, financial and social implications for the government, local authorities, businesses, and the general public (Williams 2005). In common parlance, waste can be defined as any product or material that is unwanted. Wright (1990) describes waste as anything that has lost its utility value in the sight of the original owner and everyone else in general. However, the European Council framework Directive (waste Framework Directive 75/442/EEC 1975) offers a legal definition of waste. It defines waste as

“……any material where the holder has an intention to discard the material as no longer part of the normal commercial cycle of the chain of utility”

This is the universally recognised definition of waste. Different countries may have slightly different deviations of this definition based on their laws, culture and prevailing times, circumstances and practices. According to the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA), under the auspices of Provision Decree 42 of 1988, waste is said to be “substances or objects which are disposed of, or are intended to be disposed of, or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of the law of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Omobolaji, 2010)

2.2 Classification of waste

There are different types of wastes that can be found all around us. Different nations define/classify waste according to the state in which the waste is formed i.e. solid, gas or liquid or the way the waste is generated. Based on this, waste can be classified Industrial waste, household wastes, medical waste, construction waste, commercial wastes, radioactive wastes, etc. However, in general terms, all these types of wastes can be classed into two main kinds, namely Controlled and Uncontrolled wastes:

Controlled Waste

Controlled wastes, according to the provisions of the Control of Pollution Act !974 (COPA) are said to be mainly Household waste commercial/ industrial wastes. It is a UK term covering waste subject to a duty of care under the Environmental Protection Act of 1990.

Industrial Wastes: these are wastes that are generated as a direct result of industrial practices. They include waste thermoplastics, waste wood cuttings and trimmings etc. However, they do not include plastic medical waste, waste steel cuttings and waste paper (Environmental Law Library 2010).

Commercial Wastes: They are the various waste materials gotten from trade and business buildings and activities.

Household Wastes: Are those waste products generated from activities inside a residential house. Examples of this kind of wastes are garden waste, paper and cardboard, glass, food remnants, wood etc.

Non-Controlled waste

Non controlled wastes are classified as those waste products that are not under the direct control and jurisdiction of the appropriate local authority. These kinds of wastes include wastes that are as a direct result of mining and quarrying activities, and agricultural wastes and also, radioactive wastes (Wright, 2003)

Agricultural Wastes: These wastes are primarily the types that arise from agricultural activities such as livestock litter. They also include waste pesticides asbestos roofing material and also waste oil coming from machinery, chemicals with hazardous properties etc.

Radioactive Wastes: these refer to waste that contain radioactive materials. They usually originate from nuclear power plants, or industries that emit radioactive substances or compounds during the course of their operations( Barnstein,2009)

http://www.eauc.org.uk/image_uploads_waste/wasteclassificationframework_large.jpg

Figure 2.2.1 Classifications of Wastes (Source: EAUC, 2009)

2.3 Municipal Solid Waste Management

Municipal solid waste (MSWs) refers to all the solid waste generated within a given municipality. They are primarily organic and inorganic in nature and are produced in residential homes, office complex, shops, hospitals etc. Although everybody in the society has the duty to dispose of refuse in a decent manner, municipal solid waste is usually the responsibility of the local government authorities (Okogbue, 2001). Municipal solid waste is those wastes collected by metropol5ises independent of the main source of waste (Bernstein, 2009). Such wastes include household wastes; waste produced by business buildings and small neighbourhood stores. They do not, however, include waste from industrial practices or agricultural solid waste (Filemon, 2008)

In the words of Robert Klein (2002) municipal solid waste refers to the assemblage, transfer, treatment, recycling, and disposal of solid waste in urban areas. The goal of municipal solid waste management are targeted at promoting the quality of the urban environment, generate employment and income, and protecting environmental health (Ogwueleka, 2009). According to Kit Strangen (2002), municipal solid waste may comprise of some, if not all of the following items:

Street garbage/litter or sweepings.

Household waste (usually generated from recycling and composting waste deposited by house residents at waste disposal sites).

Hazardous waste (in small quantities gotten from households)

Garden/green waste and

Bulky solid waste also generated from households.

Municipal Solid Waste management can be said to encompass all the activities that has to do with handling all the waste generated within a municipality, from the point of source, to the final point of disposal. In the words of McGraw(1993), “municipal solid waste management is the discipline attendant with the control of the generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and control of disposal of solid waste in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics and other environmental considerations and that is also responsive to public attitudes” Bloomberg (1989) described solid waste management as “the discipline that deals with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in agreement with the best principles of public health, economics, preservation, aesthetics and other environmental concerns and that is also responsive to public expectations and outlooks”. The United Nations (1997) defines solid waste management as the entire process of control and supervision of solid wastes from its point of generation to its end point of disposal.

2.4 Principles of Waste Management

Solid waste management has been said to refer to all activities relating to the control, assortment, relocation, treatment and handling of solid waste in agreement with the best values of public living and other environmental considerations (Shan, 2000). Therefore, operative principles of waste management comprises of waste prevention, reduction, recycling, treatment and disposal in the environment (Shan, 2000). Failure to effectively manage waste in the environment leads to rapid degradation and it poses long term problems to everyone.

Research has shown that, in order to successfully manage waste and minimise the damaging effects it has on the environment, some strategies should be adopted and implemented:

Waste Recovery (waste recycling, re-use and treatment)

Prevention of waste generation

Environmentally friendly Waste disposal.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Waste_hierarchy.svg/300px-Waste_hierarchy.svg.png

Figure 2.4: Waste Management Hierarchy (Source: Liennmann, 2009)

These strategies are aimed at reducing the overall amount of waste produced by encouraging proper management of waste. It also aims at recovering as much value as possible from all the waste generated. As shown on figure 2.4, waste prevention should ideally be the first approach to waste management before other options are considered (Klein, 2000). Effective implementation of this waste management hierarchy will lead to a reduction in the volume of the final waste disposed (Hasheela 2009). Magali and Bodart (2010) suggested that for sustainable development to be achieved, waste management activities should be dedicated towards waste reduction, which is at the top of the hierarchy, using the very practicably best environmental choices. Therefore the main aim of the waste management hierarchy is the reduction of waste at source. Waste recovery and reuse should be the secondary aim as they involve other processes such as recycling, composting, and recovery of energy.

However, recent studies have shown that the waste management hierarchy strategy is not the most effective. This is because it is not based on any scientific principle.it cannot specifically choose the best system for a city or country to adopt. For example, the waste management strategy cannot equate composting and incineration; or recycling and landfilling in terms of their environmental impacts and cost (Letcher, 2004). This goes to show that the waste hierarchy should be followed flexibly as a guide rather than rigidly in order to achieve a stable environmental, economic and social solution (Raven, 2011)

Aside from the above mentioned constraint, implementing this strategy in a developing country such as Nigeria will be difficult. This is because of the prevailing norms of illegal refuse disposal all across the nation. It will therefore entail adequate environmental awareness/education for the public. More so, stringent environmental laws and regulations should be implemented by all concerned.

2.4.1 Prevention of Waste

Waste prevention remains the best form of waste management because it is the most effective way of reducing the amount of waste that is generated. It is also the most environmental friendly means has it has absolutely no effect on the environment. It reduces pollution, saves electricity and saves far more energy than all other means of waste prevention (Vallero, 2004).

Finkbeiner (2003) stated that the number one priority in waste management should be waste prevention as it is the best way to stop the accumulation of waste and a reduction of loss of resources. This process should be started at the source of production.

The primary approach of waste prevention and reduction is for the manufacturers to redesign and package their products with the lowest toxicity and least volume of material. Industrialist and households can also reduce their waste by selective buying and recycle of some products and materials (Angell, 1995). It can be said that waste reduction depends mainly on the consumers and the choices they make. As such production and manufacturing companies should adopt cleaner trends in the production process. They should also try to encouragement the consumer’s choice to support less wasteful products and services (CEC 2001). This can be achieved through the use of clean technology. Their ability to choose sustainable products that have the least negative effect on the environment is the key to sustainable waste management (Spoolman, 2008).

2.4.2 Recovery of Waste/Energy

Recovery is a waste management method whereby the biological, physical or chemical essence of a waste product is altered in order to reduce the effect of such waste on the environment (Cheremisinoff, 2003) Energy can be recovered through various means; example chemical, thermal, physical and biological processes. Some waste management strategies for recovery of energy include:

Composting: This is an environmental friendly way of decreasing the volume of waste produced and also producing fertilizer (Bertoldi, 2006). Because of the low negative impact it has on the environment, the European Union has rated this method of waste disposal very high (DEFRA, 2006). It is a microbial based aerobic method that deals with the gains of resource efficiency and creates useful products from waste material that could have otherwise been discarded (USEPA 2011). The process of composting is particularly favoured for use in the tropical and hot climate countries. This is because of the high rate of biodegradation in those regions as a result of the climate. According to Tyler and Scott (1999) almost 70% of the waste streams in developing countries are compostable. The general procedure of composting is such that the organic ratios of municipal solid wastes is isolated from the inorganic portions and then laid bare to composting, this can be done in a mechanized fashion using machines and tools to handle the wastes and regulate the composting conditions. Composting can also be semi mechanized in which case the composting process is allowed to occur naturally and less machinery is used. Composting also removes the organic matter in the waste stream thereby improving the recycling and incineration processes. Nevertheless, a number of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide etc. are released into the atmosphere during this process, among other things, hence it is obvious that composting has its negative environmental impacts.

Incineration:

Incineration is another method of reducing municipal solid waste. It essentially entails the combustion of waste materials with the use of an incinerator under temperatures of over 1000 Degree Celsius (Environmental Protection Department, 2005). During the incineration process, solid waste is sorted out on the basis of their combustibility. Thereafter, the combustible materials among the waste are thrown into the incinerator and burnt. Incineration of waste is a highly effective method of reducing waste as studies have shown that it reduces the amount of waste dumped in landfills by up to 80% volume and weight (Roberts, 1978). However, this method is quite capital intensive and also requires high maintenance cost and technical expertise. This is why it is only popular among developed nations and countries such as Nigeria do not readily practice it (World Bank, 2002).

Anaerobic absorption :

Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical procedure that takes place when there is an build-up of wet organic matter, in the lack of dissolved oxygen. Through the action of anaerobic microorganisms, organic matter is converted to water, methane and new cells. These are then collected and used as gaseous fuel while the soil dregs are used as soil conditioner. Anaerobic absorption also aids processes of landfilling by eliminating sticky organic waste materials that are responsible for gaseous and liquid radiations. It is normally carried out in close tanks that allow for the collection of large portions of biogas produced (Keller, 2007)

Studies indicate that this process of waste management reduces the total volume and weight of waste generated by over 25% (Jason, 2009). It is fundamental to create renewable energy from biodegradable waste, rather than contributing to climate change through the release of methane gas that occurs during landfilling and incineration (Marek, 2007) According to EA (2001), methane gas is 20mtimes more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas. The residue gathered from anaerobic absorption comes in both liquid and solid form. This residue is known as digestate and is used to condition the soil and also as a fertilizer. This by-product is used widely on farms in countries like Germany, Sweden, and Austria. (Hardtle,2007) propounds that about 0.46% of electricity needed in the UK can be generated through the anaerobic digestion of food waste. Unfortunately, the usage of anaerobic absorption in developing countries like Nigeria is very limited due to lack of expertise, technology and the relevant infrastructure.

Landfilling: For landfilling, the solid waste is dumped and spread over the land and is left for its transformation to humus. This is attained by the biodegradation of the waste matter. Landfilling is the final step in the disposal of waste that cannot be treated or recycled, together with other residues from waste that cannot be collected, separated or handled in any other way (Nemerow,2007) There are three types of landfill carried out in Africa today, namely open or dump landfill, semi controlled or operated landfill and sanitary landfill. Open /dump landfill is the most crude form of landfilling and that is the one still being practiced in most developing countries including Nigeria. A sanitary landfill is a solid waste management method that is aimed and operated in a manner that protects the environment and public health.(Nemerow, 2007)

There are some factors necessary for the establishment of a sanitary landfill site. These factors include:

Planning and casing the waste spread site, with waste and soil placed in compressed layers.

Evaluating the engineering, geological and hydrological features of the site and also the environmental impact analysis, tipping plan and site restoration plan.

The use of liners to inhibit the infiltration of leachate into the soil to allow for full or restricted hydrogeological isolation to take place

The disadvantages of the landfilling process are also worthy of mention. Leaching of dangerous substances and nutrients are likely to occur, if landfilling is not practiced with proper environmental protection (Bilitewski and Hardtle, 2004). Contamination of groundwater can also occur in areas around landfill sites and this is a poor waste management approach. Landfilling should at best, be considered a temporary solution to the waste problem as it tends to become a big environmental pollutant as time goes by (Rosenfeld, 2008). This is so because once the lifespan of the barrier comes to an end, landfill leachates leak out and contaminate the ground water all around that area (Lee, 2004). In order to forestall such occurrences, appropriate legislation have to implemented and even enforced to ensure that proper landfill and design are carried out (Mannan and Jones 1997). The European Union has laid down strict requirements for landfills in order to avert and reduce the negative influences on the environment, specifically on surface and ground water, soil, air, and human health (Jasiski, 2010)

F:BlackBerrypicturesIMG01789-20120902-1429.jpg

Figure 2.4.2 Landfill site in Port Harcourt (source: Obijiofor, 2009)

Aside from the above mentioned ones, other waste management principles have been established as viable strategies for solving Municipal Solid Waste Management issues. Rushkin (2009) gives some of them as:

Creating Awareness: This involves the use of mass media, awareness campaigns and every other means of sensitizing the public on the consequences of reckless waste disposal and the environmental benefits of good waste management.

User Pays Principle: This principle requires that the users of the resources bear the financial cost of those who provide waste management services for their enterprise. This discourages wasteful consumerism.

Polluter Pays Principle: This entails the producers of waste to pay directly for the damage caused by their waste. This principle was first propounded in 1972 at the behest of the OECD council on Guiding Principles concerning International Economic Aspects of Environmental Policies. According to Trevor (2010) the principle that is used for allotting costs of pollution stoppage and control to ensure the rational use of environmental resources is the so-called Polluter-pays-principle

Product Stewardship Principle: It requires the manufacturers or importers of waste to take responsibility of the environmental impacts of their products.

2.5 Waste Composition in Port Harcourt

The challenges of solid waste management in cities of developing countries like Nigeria are quite different from those in developed western countries. Also, the composition of waste generated is also dissimilar from country to country depending on the rate of development of that particular country, culture and rate of development. Depending on the social class and occupation of the inhabitants of a particular area, the kind of waste they produce greatly varies. Solid waste generation of third world countries is 0.6 to 0.8kg/person/day, compared to 1.0 to 1.6 kg/person/day in industrialized countries (Zerbock 2003). Ogwueleka (2009) acknowledge that developing countries like Nigeria have dissimilar solid waste management problems from first world countries. These differences can easily be noticed in in areas of density/volume, configuration, and economic framework, amount of waste generated, access to waste for collection, awareness of proper waste disposal methods and attitude of the citizens.). A study by Ajao and Anurigwo (2001) estimated that 168,201 tonnes of solid waste were produced per year in Port Harcourt which is the primary area of study in this. It is, however, important to note that household waste make up for over 60% of municipal solid waste, in the United Kingdom with kitchen waste being the biggest (DEFRA 2006). Past research and studies indicate that this can be said to be the same for the city of Port Harcourt. According to Mba (2004), waste composition in Port Harcourt is basically made up of:

Garbage: This constitutes close to 70% of all waste generated in Port Harcourt municipality. Its source is primarily the households and business offices in the city and it is mainly biodegradable. Other waste products generated therein include paper, carton/cardboard, plastics, cloth cuttings, bottles, ceramics, tin cans etc.

Waste derived from small scale activities such as street sweeping, demolition/rubble waste, ashes etc. It also includes items such as abandoned vehicles, carts and bicycles littering the streets. However these constitute a little percentage of the waste generated. These items constitute a major waste disposal problem in the municipality.

http://archive.defra.gov.uk/evidence/statistics/environment/waste/images/wrfg18.gif

Figure 2.5 Compositions of Household Wastes in the UK (Source: DEFRA, 2006)

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2.6 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Port Harcourt

Nigeria as a country is blessed with abundant human and natural resources. However the progress and development of this great nation has been hindered by poor municipal solid waste management methods (Adedoyin, 2006). Although Port Harcourt ranks as one of the most urbanized cities in Nigeria, it is also one of the dirtiest (Alabor, 2007). Driving or walking through the city, the terrible picture of littered waste is glaring. These waste products are just dumped on major highways and roads constituting an eyesore. The flagrant dumping of solid waste in Port Harcourt and its attendant impact on the environment currently is not apposite for healthy living (Eloho,2006).

The problem of municipal solid waste in Port Harcourt can be traced back to over a decade ago when waste management was the sole responsibility of the local government (Mba, 2004). An accumulation of refuse builds up in a matter of hours and sometimes obstructs traffic. The residents of Port Harcourt were not adequately serviced by the Local Government Authorities in the aspect of waste collection and disposal. There were no public waste bins, no designated dump sites etc. so the public recklessly dumps their household waste on the road. Improper waste disposal methods such as open burning, dumping refuse along the road or in open fields, in the streams or rivers and in landfills were the order of the day (Olowomeye,2001). This led to immense environmental pollution. To this day, a huge refuse problem still exists in Port Harcourt. Municipal solid waste generated in the city is largely dumped indiscriminately. These illegally dumped wastes constitute a problem for human health and the degradation of the environment (William , 2005). Previous studies show that the main composition of municipal solid waste in Port Harcourt is mainly plastic, paper, organic food waste, metal, textile, aluminium and glass (Igoni et al, 2007). These waste materials form the bulk of the refuse that are discarded indiscriminately in the city.

The government provides refuse bins at designated spots on the road and streets yet people just disregard these and dump their wastes indiscriminately, most times where ever that proves most convenient for them(Adedokun, 1992). This waste contaminates ground water, serves as a breeding ground for rats, flies and other pests, and ultimately leads to the spread of diseases. Also, indiscriminate waste disposal in the city leads to the reduction of available land and the strong emission of methane gas contribute to global warming and exhaustion of the earth’s natural resources (Williams, 2005).

The obvious reasons behind the actions of the people of Port Harcourt include: High level of illiteracy, lack of awareness about proper disposal methods and reluctance to cooperate on the issue of waste disposal (Nabegu, 2010). The government also set up agencies and ministries responsible for municipal waste management in the state. These agencies receive financial and technical support from the state environmental budget to effectively carry out their duties (Okot-Uma,2000)

According to Obijiofor, 2009 the Government agencies officially in charge of solid waste management in Port Harcourt are:

The State Ministry of Environment and Water Resources

Local Government councils and wards (Environmental Department).

Rivers State Environmental Authority (RSESA): This agency is the main organisation in charge of municipal solid waste collection, transfer and disposal. They are also responsible for the registration and licensing of private refuse collectors in the city, maintaining landfill sites and enforcing all laid down regulations concerning refuse collection, disposal and sanitation all across the city (Ekosse,2000)

The Federal Government of Nigeria created the Decree 58 and established the Federal Environmental Protection agency. Their mandate was to handle the collection and disposal of refuse in Nigerian cities, secure the environment for health and well-being and thus promote sustainable development in the country (Ogu, 2000). The Federal Government also initiated the Environmental Sanitation exercise that is carried out once a month throughout the nation. The aim of such an exercise was mainly to inculcate a sense of environmental awareness into the minds of the populace (Obefe, 1993). All of these measures, however, have not helped to achieve the main aims for which they were instituted. This is because of the inability of these established agencies to discharge their duties effectively. The state agencies in charge of municipal waste management, most times, do not have enough government support and funding to be as efficient as the private waste management companies in the disposal of waste (Christain, 2011). This result in exorbitant fees charged by the private companies for removal of waste and as such only high income earners can afford their services. The rest of the populace in that area that suffer neglect from the state environmental agency now resorts to dumping their refuse in the open, rivers, creeks, empty plots of land and even in drains. This causes flooding most times and the waste dumped in drains may be carried away by run-off water into larger bodies of water like seas or lakes and polluting them, thus, affecting the ecosystem (Ankidawa, 2007)

It is important to note that ignorance plays a major part in the activities of these culprits of indiscriminate waste disposal (Adeh, 2010). A profound lack of knowledge about waste management methods can be observed among the inhabitants of some parts of Port Harcourt. They are simply not aware of the environmental and health dangers of bad waste disposal. This is especially among the middle/low class neighbourhood whose occupants cannot afford the services of private waste management companies. They are then left at the mercy of state run Environmental Protection Agency which is badly funded and ill motivated as it does not receive the government attention it well deserves (Igwe, 2000). Solid waste generated in these areas are usually burnt outside in the open by the residents or dumped by the roadsides in large heaps as there is no formal waste collection/disposal system put in place by the government (Iheanacho, 2009)

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Figure 2.6.1 Waste dumped indiscriminately on a street in Port Harcourt (Source: Author’s photograph)

The informal/local recycling sector in Port Harcourt city also enjoys very little support from the Government or even the private sector, but they have been able to achieve some success in recycling municipal solid waste. The general disposal methods are through the scavengers. These are mainly males between the ages of 14 to 35 with no formal education or training and as such do not have any chance of white collar employment (Ogbonna, 2002). They rummage through the waste heap, pick up reusable and recyclable waste and sell them to manufacturers who recycle the waste into proper goods. This is a form of employment for most people that do not have any means of livelihood (Obijiofor et al 2009). The recyclable materials like plastics, glass, metal and textiles in this enormous heap of refuse then attract the attention of these local scavengers. They sort out refuse at the dump sites and then taken to be reused and or recycled. There are another group involved in the collection and transportation of refuse from these areas. They are the local cart pushers. They collect and transport these recyclable materials from the houses and areas generated and sell it to the industries as raw material that can be used for recycling. The cart pushers, however, charge a disposal fee from the houses that generate this waste. They make about $25 per day (Ayobolu, 2005).The waste materials collected are typically washed and dried out before they are sold to refuse dealers either at disposal sites or at junk stores(Onibokun, 1999)). In other bigger cities, like Lagos, this is a very lucrative business because of the abundance of refuse dumps all across the city. The collection and transportation of the recyclable waste is very labour intensive and it is projected that this accounts for 65% to 70% of the total cost waste management in the country (Oluwande, 2008). The major scavenging and recycling done in Nigeria is informal and they are derived from mixed waste. The recyclable content of solid waste all across the city is said to be about 58% and it is comprised of organic matter which makes it problematic to incinerate. For example, glass is processed and recycled locally to give cullet which can be used for the production of other things such as saucers, tumblers etc. while whole glass bottles are thoroughly washed and cleaned ,the reused for re-storing locally made drinks, medicines etc (Imman et al,2008) .

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Figure 2.6.2 Informal recycling sectors (Source: Wilson et al. 2010)

The activities of these scavengers have also, in a way, hindered development and revenue generation through the recycling of waste as they end up dumping the waste indiscriminately too. Irrespective of all that, the same solid waste problem still persists. This is made more so because even after the scavengers have recovered the recyclable waste materials they need, they end up disposing the residual waste indiscriminately. Nevertheless if properly managed, the huge amounts of waste can be transformed into commercial, industrial, and household goods thereby generating revenue for the government and employment for people in that sector.(Ekwezor, 2010).

2.7 REVIEW OF EU-UK LEGISLATION ON SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT

Previous environmental incidents that have occurred highlighted the need for the enactment, development and modification of environmental protection laws/legislation on waste disposal all over the world (Odibo, 2009). The leaking of PCBs into rice fields in Osaka, Japan in 1968; the methane gas explosion in the USA in 1969 and the cyanide dumping episode in Coventry, Warwickshire, UK in 1972 are some of the incidents that have raised global concern on the need to have standing laws and regulations guiding the issues of waste management among all nations of the world (Mckenzie, 2008). This prompted the UK waste management agency to take necessary actions to regulate municipal solid waste disposal in order to forestall future occurrence (Williams, 2005). Before these incidents, very little concern was shown towards instituting regulations for solid waste disposal methods such as landfills and as such, it had a devastating effect on the environment (Sarsby, 2000).

However, at a particular time, a steady flow of directives from the European Union was issued with the objective of educating and coordinating waste management strategies and policies throughout Europe (DOE, 2005). The resolution of waste regulations/legislation was to effectively manage waste and environmental resources available. Studies indicated that a lot of nations including the UK established regulations which made it compulsory that non-hazardous waste sites be converted into sanitary landfills in order to stop the escape of leachate from the landfill sites into the surrounding grounds or water bodies (Bagchi, 2004). Moreover, incidents of waste disposal like the cyanide dumping in Coventry and the explosion in the US caused so much public outcry.

In 1972 the United Kingdom joined the EU community and subsequently implemented the Control of Pollution Act of 1974. This was the first statute that structured the disposal of waste to land and the discharge of effluent to sewer and water courses (Hawkins and Shaw, 2010). After being a signatory to the EC, the first statute regulating the disposal of waste to land and the discharge of effluents into waterways and sewages was adopted by the UK.( Hawkins and Shaw, 2000). That act is known as The Control of Pollution Act 1974 (COPA 1974). The ultimate objective is to protect and improve the value of the environment (Odibo, 2009) The ECAs a direct result of the Control of Pollution Act of 1974, the European 75/442 Waste Framework Directive was created. As amended by the 91/156 Directive, it states that ‘Disposal includes the collection, categorization, carriage, treatment and stowage of waste pending tipping above ground or incineration’. To effectively implement the 75/442 Directive, the UK established some other legislation in subsequent years and it led to the introduction of the Environmental Protection Act of 1990 (EPA 1990). This Environmental Protection Act of 1990 contained a range of themes for the protection of the environment and Part II of the EPA Act replaced and reinforced the waste disposal Framework in COPA 1974. The Waste Framework Directive also makes it mandatory for all handlers of waste; including those involved in storing, transportation, treatment, and disposal to hold a waste management license. This licence must be issued out by the Environmental Agency alone, unless they are excluded by a higher authority. The Environmental agency hence has the responsibility of issuing out permits, monitoring for compliance among licence holders. The creation of the Environmental Protection Act of1990 was brought about by the introduction of new legislation for the effective implementation of the waste Framework Directive by the UK. This Act included a selection of topics for the protection of the environment and part 2 of the Act supplanted and effectively reinforced the waste disposal framework in COPA 1974 (Odibo, 2009)

In addition, the United Kingdom adopted legislation within the European Union that regulates waste management. This particular statute is the legislation on waste treatment operations. To efficiently implement the regulations on waste treatment operations, the EC divided its operations into three Directives namely:

The Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Directive 1996 (96/61/EC): This policy was developed in the UK in order to promote development by encouraging environmentally friendly economic activities. The Directive aims at effectively preventing waste through ‘clean’ and improved technology. It was further developed into the concept of a ‘waste management hierarchy’ which structures the entire process of waste management from prevention, reuse and recycling to optimisation of the final disposal method (DoE, 1995)

The Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC): The Landfill Directive came into existence throughout the European Union on the 16th of July, 1999 with the aim of complementing controls on landfill sites all across the EU. Its main objective is to reduce pollutants like methane gas emitted in landfill sites and also emphasizes on common standards for the design, operation and the after care of landfill sites. This legislation was tailored to improve the general standard of landfilling across Europe. The dictates of the Landfill Directive are executed through the Landfill Regulations 2002 for England and Wales (Bagchi, 2004). It encompasses all the details about the designing, type of waste most suitable for a particular landfill, operation and post-operative care of all the landfills in EU member states (Williams, 2002).

The Directive on the Incineration of Waste 2000(2000/76/EC): This legislation regulates and monitors compliance for proper incineration of processes of waste throughout the European Union. The aims and objectives of waste incineration directive are to limit or prevent, as far as practicable, the negative impacts of waste on our environment. Contamination of groundwater, soil and even the air by emissions given off during waste incineration, are some of its main points of focus. The Directive also involves the setting and maintenance of stringent operational conditions and technical requirements for incinerating plants throughout the EC in order to fully protect the environment and the people living in it. (DEFRA, 2009)

To ensure that the Directives are successfully implemented in the UK, the strategic planning and preparation was done by the Environmental agencies Local governments, local planning authority and all local industries (Williams, 2005). The Local and Federal Government, Environmental Agency, Local planning authorities and the general public have also been merged into participating in all these waste management principles mentioned above (Odibo 2009). The UK aimed to move up the waste management hierarchy process. In addition, the waste management scheme in the UK involved and encouraged public participation. An example of this was the planning permission for an industrial combined heat and power site in South East London following public agitation and participation (ISWA 2000).

To further enforce these Directives and Acts, the following principles were based on it (Dubois, Gonzalez and Knadel 2004):

Principle of proximity: This principle requires that waste be treated as close as possible to its point of generation, production or collection.

Best Practicable Environmental Option: This is a methodical option or assessment of all available waste treatment or management options in order to identify the best one that will guarantee maximum environmental, economic, and social benefits(DOE, 2005)

Waste Management Hierarchy: This entails the prevention, recovery re-use and recycling of raw materials from solid waste.

Polluter Pays Principle: This stipulates that polluters are financially responsible for their waste and as such, waste disposal facilities must be paid for by the polluters themselves and not from the tax payer’s funds.

Principle of Self Sufficiency: This requires that every member state of the treaty is chiefly responsible for its own generated waste and should be held accountable for it at all times.

Principle of Best Available Technology (BAT): This principle requires that waste disposal facilities be equipped with the best available technology designed with the environment in mind.

In addition to these, the Waste Framework also makes it compulsory for all those that transport, store, treat and dispose all waste materials to hold a waste management license that must be issued by the Environmental Agency. All these go to show that since the 1980s, the European Union have endeavoured to attain sustainable development through embracing all forms of social, economic and environmental dimensions of sustainability (Kit and Strange 2002).

2.8 EXISTING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES IN NIGERIA/PORT

HARCOURT (LEGAL FRAMEWORK)

Nigeria is the most populated country on the African continent. It occupies about 14% of the land mass in Africa, and has a population of over 166 million people. It is between Latitudes 4`N and 14`n of the Equator; with Cameroon bordering on the East, Niger republic and Benin Republic flanking on the West and North respectively (Federal Ministry of Environment, 2001). Nigeria has a total length of about 850km of Atlantic Ocean boundary and a total surface area of about 923,773 square kilometres (Adeyinka, Bankole and Solomon, 2003). Port Harcourt, which is the capital of Rivers State, is located in the southern part of Nigeria. It is a large port town with an estimated population of 1,382,592(NPC, 2006). Port Harcourt lies along the bonny river, 41miles (66km) upstream from the Gulf of Guinea. It has a mean annual rainfall of 2280mm and an average annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 24.3 degree centigrade and 35.1 degree centigrade respectively. The weather is same as the rest of the country, tropical and its driest months commence from December to March with soil type that consists mainly of silt clay mixed with sand (Ayotamuno et al, 2006).

Port Harcourt, the capital of Rivers state, is the centre of Nigeria’s oil industry and is highly industrialized. Owing to the discovery of oil in the 50’s in the Niger Delta region, the area has continued to enjoy all the advantages of urbanization till date. It is also the biggest base of multinational oil operations in the country. The oil boom led to a rapid influx of migrants in search of job opportunities, thereby giving rise to over population (See map of Port Harcourt below). However, population growth through rural to urban migration was not limited to Port Harcourt alone as most cities also witnessed an influx of people from the rural areas, hence an increase in the amount of municipal solid waste generated(Odubela, 1998). The rising volume of waste produced over the years has led to projections and estimations by environmental agencies in a bid to be able to efficiently map out strategies to manage municipal solid waste.

Table 2.8: Valuation and estimated volume of Municipal Solid Waste in some Nigerian Cities

Cities

Year 1980

Year 1990

Year 2000(Estimate)

Kaduna

27,837

324,084

431,314

Lagos

634,476

776,070

994,298

Ibadan

350,823

465,956

561,773

Port Harcourt

212,845

256,219

352,853

Onitsha

232,240

304,447

396,593

Kano

319,943

409,123

535,186

Aba

131,903

169,719

239,703

Source: Nigerian Environment and Study Action Team (NEST) (1991), cited in Ogu 200

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Figure 2.8.1 Map of Nigeria showing the 36 states (source: Odubela, 2009)

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Figure 2.8.2: Map of Rivers state (Source: Odubela, 2009)

In 1987, a large quantity of toxic waste was dumped in a small town called Koko in Bendel state. This sparked off widespread disease, infections and death in the area, spreading panic across the nation. Consequently, the Nigerian Government propagated the Harmful Waste Decree which provided the legal framework for the operational control of the generation and disposal of all kinds waste in within Nigeria. After this in 1988, the regulatory body, the Federal Environmental protection agency (FEPA) was established. It was bestowed with the responsibility of guarding and developing the Nigerian environment (Echefu and Akpofure, 2010). The legal framework for environmental policies in Nigeria originates from the Nigerian Constitution. It stands as the foundation on which all the Environmental Protection Acts are based upon. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999 in Section 20 states that “the State shall at all times protect and improve the environment and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wildlife of Nigeria” (International Centre for Nigerian Law 2009). Based on that, the legal charter for environmental protection in Nigeria comprises of the following (Atsegbua, 2004):

National Policy on Environment, Act 42 of 1988: This act deems 9it a criminal offence to import or trade in toxic waste in Nigeria. It was promulgated with the objective of achieving sustainable development (Adeh, 1991)

Harmful Waste Act of 1988.

National Environmental Regulations and Pollution Abatement 1991: this was enacted to reduce and monitor the generation of industrial waste in Nigeria.

The National Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Pollution Control in Nigeria (Regulation S.1.15): This is also for the overseeing of solid and hazardous waste.

Environmental Impact Assessment Act of 1992: This is to safeguard the environment and make certain that private and public sector companies or individuals do not embark on or authorise activities or projects without prior deliberation of the impact of those activities to the environment.

2.8.1 Institutional Framework

The Federal Government, by the provisions of the constitution, created the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act of 1988 (FEPA Act). This Act led to the establishment of the Federal Environmental Protection Agency in 1992. This body was given the responsibility of controlling the environment and also developing policies and procedures that will help maintain the environment (Akpotaire and Folarin, 2011). It operates a central administrative system with headquarters situated at the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja and Zonal offices located in Lagos, Port Harcourt, Benin-city, Kaduna and Kano. Each zone office is charged with addressing all the environmental problems of the states within their zones. According to section 4 of Decree 58, the Federal Environmental Agency was instituted to carry out the following:

Liaise with the Federal and State ministries, local government councils and research agencies on dealing with matters relating to environmental protection.

Prepare and present plans for the development of new methods and practices of environmental management.

Advice the Government and sensitize the public new environmental issues and policies whenever the need arises.

The Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria (EGASPIN) 2002: This was issued by the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), according to (Aluko and Oyebode, 2006),with the duty of carrying out regular health and environmental assessments and reviews of oil companies in Nigeria.

2.9 WASTE REUSE & RECYCLING

Recycling is a waste management strategy whereby the value of waste is recovered for consumption (Baud, 2008). Waste reuse refers to the process of making use of these discarded materials. Recent studies have indicated that 65% of municipal waste is made up of glass, wood, metal and organic waste. All these are recyclable and are a good resource for sustainable development (Letcher, 2006). The European Union in 2002 reiterated the importance of attaining a situation where ‘most of the waste are generated are either reintroduced into the economic cycle through reuse and recycling or are returned to the environment in a composting or harmless form’ (Weilang, 2009). According to Harrison (1992) waste recycling involves the separation and collection of waste material, the preparation of these materials for reuse, reprocessing and remanufacture of these materials. Reuse and recycling aim at converting waste non bio-degradable materials such as plastics, paper gotten from wood and glass which is non-decomposable into useful resources for future production and ensuring sustainable development.

In Port Harcourt, according to studies, the main municipal solid waste generated is made up of paper and paperboard, food waste, glass, polyethylene/plastics and textiles