Antisemitism In ‘The Merchant Of Venice’

Shylock’s cries for a pound of flesh have made him one of literature’s most memorable villains, but many readers and playgoers have found him a compelling and sympathetic figure. The question of whether or not Shakespeare endorses the anti-Semitism of the Christian characters in the play has been much debated. Jews in Shakespeare’s England were a marginalized group, and Shakespeare’s contemporaries would have been very familiar with portrayals of Jews as villains and objects of mockery. For example, Christopher Marlowe’s The Jew of Malta, a bloody farce about a murderous Jewish villain, was a great popular success and would have been fresh in Shakespeare’s mind as he set about creating his own Jewish character. Shakespeare certainly draws on this anti-Semitic tradition in portraying Shylock, exploiting Jewish stereotypes for comic effect. But Shylock is a more complex character than the Jew in Marlowe’s play, and Shakespeare makes him seem more human by showing that his hatred is born of the mistreatment he has suffered in a Christian society. Shakespeare’s character includes an element of pathos as well as comedy, meaning that he elicits from readers and audiences pity and compassion, rather than simply scorn and derision.

Shylock – A Jewish moneylender in Venice. Angered by his mistreatment at the hands of Venice’s Christians, particularly Antonio, Shylock schemes to eke out his revenge by ruthlessly demanding as payment a pound of Antonio’s flesh. Although seen by the rest of the play’s characters as an inhuman monster, Shylock at times diverges from stereotype and reveals himself to be quite human. These contradictions, and his eloquent expressions of hatred, have earned Shylock a place as one of Shakespeare’s most memorable characters. Although critics tend to agree that Shylock is The Merchant of Venice’s most noteworthy figure, no consensus has been reached on whether to read him as a bloodthirsty bogeyman, a clownish Jewish stereotype, or a tragic figure whose sense of decency has been fractured by the persecution he endures. Certainly, Shylock is the play’s antagonist, and he is menacing enough to seriously imperil the happiness of Venice’s businessmen and young lovers alike. Shylock is also, however, a creation of circumstance; even in his single-minded pursuit of a pound of flesh, his frequent mentions of the cruelty he has endured at Christian hands make it hard for us to label him a natural born monster. In one of Shakespeare’s most famous monologues, for example, Shylock argues that Jews are humans and calls his quest for vengeance the product of lessons taught to him by the cruelty of Venetian citizens. On the other hand, Shylock’s coldly calculated attempt to revenge the wrongs done to him by murdering his persecutor, Antonio, prevents us from viewing him in a primarily positive light. Shakespeare gives us unmistakably human moments, but he often steers us against Shylock as well, painting him as a miserly, cruel, and prosaic figure.

Antonio – The merchant whose love for his friend Bassanio prompts him to sign Shylock’s contract and almost lose his life. Antonio is something of a mercurial figure, often inexplicably melancholy and, as Shylock points out, possessed of an incorrigible dislike of Jews. Nonetheless, Antonio is beloved of his friends and proves merciful to Shylock, albeit with conditions. Although the play’s title refers to him, Antonio is a rather lackluster character. He emerges in Act I, scene i as a hopeless depressive, someone who cannot name the source of his melancholy and who, throughout the course of the play, devolves into a self-pitying lump, unable to muster the energy required to defend himself against execution. Antonio never names the cause of his melancholy, but the evidence seems to point to his being in love, despite his denial of this idea in Act I, scene i. The most likely object of his affection is Bassanio, who takes full advantage of the merchant’s boundless feelings for him. Antonio has risked the entirety of his fortune on overseas trading ventures, yet he agrees to guarantee the potentially lethal loan Bassanio secures from Shylock. In the context of his unrequited and presumably unconsummated relationship with Bassanio, Antonio’s willingness to offer up a pound of his own flesh seems particularly important, signifying a union that grotesquely alludes to the rites of marriage, where two partners become “one flesh.”

Further evidence of the nature of Antonio’s feelings for Bassanio appears later in the play, when Antonio’s proclamations resonate with the hyperbole and self-satisfaction of a doomed lover’s declaration: “Pray God Bassanio come / To see me pay his debt, and then I care not” (III.iii.35-36). Antonio ends the play as happily as he can, restored to wealth even if not delivered into love. Without a mate, he is indeed the “tainted wether”-or castrated ram-of the flock, and he will likely return to his favorite pastime of moping about the streets of Venice (IV.i.113). After all, he has effectively disabled himself from pursuing his other hobby-abusing Shylock-by insisting that the Jew convert to Christianity. Although a sixteenth-century audience might have seen this demand as merciful, as Shylock is saving himself from eternal damnation by converting, we are less likely to be convinced. Not only does Antonio’s reputation as an anti-Semite precede him, but the only instance in the play when he breaks out of his doldrums is his “storm” against Shylock (I.iii.132). In this context, Antonio proves that the dominant threads of his character are melancholy and cruelty.

Act I, scene iii

Summary

Shylock, a Jewish moneylender, agrees to loan Bassanio three thousand ducats for a term of three months. Bassanio assures Shylock that Antonio will guarantee the loan, but Shylock is doubtful because Antonio’s wealth is currently invested in business ventures that may fail. In the end, however, Shylock decides that Antonio’s guarantee of the loan will be sufficient assurance, and asks to speak with him. When Antonio arrives, Shylock, in an aside, confesses his hatred for the man. Antonio, Shylock says, is a Christian who lends money without interest, which makes more difficult the practice of usury, in which money is lent out at exorbitant interest rates. Shylock is also incensed by Antonio’s frequent public denunciations of Shylock. Antonio makes it clear to Shylock that he is not in the habit of borrowing or lending money, but has decided to make an exception on behalf of his friend Bassanio. Their conversation leads Antonio to chastise the business of usury, which Shylock defends as a way to thrive.

As he calculates the interest on Bassanio’s loan, Shylock remembers the many times that Antonio has cursed him, calling him a “misbeliever, cut-throat, dog / And spit upon [his] Jewish gaberdine” (I.iii.107-108). Antonio responds that he is likely to do so again, and insists that Shylock lend him the money as an enemy. Such an arrangement, Antonio claims, will make it easier for Shylock to exact a harsh penalty if the loan is not repaid. Assuring Antonio that he means to be friends, Shylock offers to make the loan without interest. Instead, he suggests, seemingly in jest, that Antonio forfeit a pound of his own flesh should the loan not be repaid in due time. Bassanio warns Antonio against entering such an agreement, but Antonio assures him that he will have no trouble repaying the debt, as his ships will soon bring him wealth that far exceeds the value of the loan. Shylock attempts to dismiss Bassanio’s suspicions, asking what profit he stands to make by procuring a pound of Antonio’s flesh. As Shylock heads off to the notary’s office to sign the bond, Antonio remarks on Shylock’s newfound generosity: “The Hebrew will turn Christian; he grows kind” (I.iii.174). Bassanio remains suspicious of the arrangement, but Antonio reminds him that his ships will arrive within the next two months.

Analysis

Shylock is an arresting presence on the stage, and although Antonio may be the character for whom the play is named, it is Shylock who has come to dominate the imaginations of critics and audiences alike. Shylock’s physical presence in the play is actually not so large, as he speaks fewer lines than other characters and does not even appear in the play’s final act. However, in many ways, the play belongs to Shylock. The use of a Jew as the central villain was not unknown to Renaissance comedy, as evidenced by The Jew of Malta, a wildly popular play by Shakespeare’s contemporary Christopher Marlowe, which revolves around a malevolent, bloodthirsty Jewish character named Barabas. Shylock, however, differs in that his malice seems to stem, at least in part, from the unkindness of his Christian colleagues. Exactly how to read Shylock has been a matter of some debate, and even the most persuasive scholars would be hard-pressed to call him a flattering portrait of a Jew. One could certainly argue, however, that Shylock receives far less of a stock portrayal than what was common in Shakespeare’s time, and that, given the constant degradation he endures, we can even feel something akin to sympathy for him.

At the heart of any sympathy we might feel for Shylock lies the fact that the bonhomie and good nature that so mark Antonio’s appearance with Bassanio disappear, and his treatment of Shylock is unexpectedly harsh and brutal. Even though Bassanio and Antonio require a favor from Shylock, Antonio’s is still a tone of imperious command, and his past, present, and future attitude toward Shylock is one of exceptional contempt. Shylock vividly illustrates the depth of this contempt, wondering aloud why he should lend Antonio money when Antonio has voided his “rheum,” or spit, on Shylock’s beard, and he kicked Shylock as he would a stray dog (I.iii.113-114). The repeated mention of spittle here sharply differentiates Antonio’s Venice, where even shipwrecks seem like spice-laden dreams, from Shylock’s, where the city is a place of blows, kicks, and bodily functions. Without these details, Antonio’s haughty attitude toward Shylock could easily be forgiven, but the very visceral details of spit and kicks show a violent, less romantic side to Antonio, and our sympathies for him cannot help but lessen.

Shylock is noticeably different from Shakespeare’s other great villains, such as Richard III or Iago, in several ways. In the first place, these other villains see themselves as evil, and while they may try to justify their own villainy, they also revel in it, making asides to the audience and self-consciously comparing themselves to the Vice character of medieval morality plays. Marlowe’s Jew, Barabas, is a similarly self-conscious villain. Though the Christian characters of The Merchant of Venice may view Jews as evil, Shylock does not see himself in that way. His views of himself and others are rational, articulate, and consistent. Also, Shakespeare’s other villains are generally more deceitful, passing themselves off as loving and virtuous Christians while plotting malevolently against those around them. Shylock, on the other hand, is an outcast even before the play begins, vilified and spat upon by the Christian characters. Shylock’s actions are relatively open, although the other characters misunderstand his intentions because they do not understand him.

Indeed, Shylock understands the Christians and their culture much better than they understand him. The Christian characters only interact with Shylock within a framework of finance and law-he is not part of the friendship network portrayed in Act I, scene i. Though Bassanio asks him to dine with them, Shylock says in an aside that he will not break bread with Christians, nor will he forgive Antonio, thereby signaling his rejection of one of the fundamental Christian values, forgiveness. Shylock is able to cite the New Testament as readily as Jewish scripture, as he shows in his remark about the pig being the animal into which Christ drove the devil. Antonio notes Shylock’s facility with the Bible, but he uses this ability to compare Shylock to the devil, who, proverbially, is also adept at quoting scripture. As we see more of Shylock, he does not become a hero or a fully sympathetic character, but he is an unsettling figure insofar as he exposes the inconsistencies and hypocrisies of the Christian characters. Shylock never quite fits their descriptions or expectations of him. Most significantly, they think he is motivated solely by money, when in fact his resentment against Antonio and the other Christians outweighs his desire for monetary gain.

Key Facts

full title · The Comical History of the Merchant of Venice, or Otherwise Called the Jew of Venice

author · William Shakespeare

type of work · Play

genre · Comedy

language · English

time and place written · 1598; London, England

date of first publication · First published in the Quarto of 1600

publisher · I. R. for Thomas Heys

tone · Comic, romantic, tragic

setting (time) · Sixteenth century

setting (place) · Venice and Belmont, Italy

protagonist · There is no clear protagonist. Antonio is the merchant of the play’s title, but he plays a relatively passive role. The major struggles of the play are Bassanio’s quest to marry Portia and his attempt to free Antonio from Shylock, so Bassanio is the likeliest candidate.

major conflict · Antonio defaults on a loan he borrowed from Shylock, wherein he promises to sacrifice a pound of flesh.

rising action · Antonio’s ships, the only means by which he can pay off his debt to Shylock, are reported lost at sea.

climax · Portia, disguised as a man of law, intervenes on Antonio’s behalf.

falling action · Shylock is ordered to convert to Christianity and bequeath his possessions to Lorenzo and Jessica; Portia and Nerissa persuade their husbands to give up their rings

themes · Self-interest versus love; the divine quality of mercy; hatred as a cyclical phenomenon

motifs · The law; cross-dressing; filial piety

symbols · The pound of flesh; Leah’s ring; the three caskets

foreshadowing · In the play’s opening scene, Shakespeare foreshadows Antonio’s grim future by suggesting both his indebtedness to a creditor and the loss of his valuable ships.

Because of Venice’s position as a centre for trade, it was full of people of many different nationalities, religions and races. The Christian leaders were keen to quell the activities of the Jews, and so created one of the first Jewish ghettos, forcing the Jews to live in a particular area. Yet the Jewish community continued to flourish in spite of the prejudice shown against them.

Antonio

An illustration of Antonio

Antonio is the Merchant of Venice of the title. He makes his money from trading costly goods on his ships. He appears to be rich and successful.

At the start of the play he is depressed. The reason for this is never made clear. He says the world is “A stage where every man must play a part, / And mine a sad one.” Why do you think he is so sad?

He is a good and generous friend to Bassanio.

He is happy to lend him money, even though Bassanio is in his debt already and Antonio has to borrow money to do so.

Solanio, describing Bassanio’s departure to Belmont, says of Antonio and Bassanio’s friendship, “I think he only loves the world for him.”

When news comes of his lost ships, Antonio asks Bassanio to come home, but does not force him. He writes, “use your pleasure.”

When he believes he is going to die, he tells Bassanio, “Say how I loved you,” and seems glad to be paying Bassanio’s debt with his life.

Antonio promises surety for Bassanio again in Act V, when Portia is questioning Bassanio about the loss of his ring, saying “I once did lend my body for his wealth, …I dare be bound again, / My soul upon the forfeit, that your lord / Will nevermore break faith advisedly.”

Some directors have suggested a homosexual relationship between Antonio and Bassanio. (Antonio certainly never makes any mention of wanting a wife.) What do you think of this idea?

He is apparently generous to other people too, as he never lends money for profit.

However, he is vehemently anti-Jewish (or anti-Semite). He has been cruel to Shylock over a long period of time, even though he is a Christian. (He obviously does not love his enemies, as Christians are taught to do!)

Shylock describes how “many a time and oft / In the Rialto have you rated me / About my money and my usances.”

Whilst in prison, he recognises that Shylock hates him because he lent money to people to help them pay their debts to Shylock – yet makes no mention of other reasons why Shylock would hate him, such as all the verbal abuse he has given him!

When his own life has been spared, Antonio forces Shylock to become a Christian, which he must know is the worst penalty of all for the Jew. Do you think he does this because he is passionate about converting people to Christianity, or to gain revenge?

He believes that the laws of Venice should be upheld – even if it means losing his life. “The Duke cannot deny the course of law.”

Shylock

An illustration of Shylock

He is a Jewish moneylender who earns his living by charging interest on money he loans (like modern banks). He often speaks prose in the play, which marks him out as an outsider.

He is persecuted by all the non-Jews he knows:

He tells Antonio, “suff’rance is the badge of all our tribe.”

He is verbally abused and bullied by most characters in the play and is called cruel names including “villain with a smiling cheek, cut-throat dog, bloody creditor, damned inexecrable dog”

He is clearly an intelligent businessman:

He is very astute and is aware of other people’s concerns – he knows all about Antonio’s business ventures.

The main reason he hates Antonio is financial: “I hate him for he is a Christian; / But more, for that in low simplicity / He lends out money gratis.”

So, why does he make such a strange agreement with Antonio, asking for a pound of Antonio’s flesh instead of interest if the loan is not repaid within the arranged time? Does he genuinely want to be friends with Antonio when he says “I would be friends with you, and have your love?”

He is Jessica’s father. His daughter hates him and calls him a “devil.” We see him being impatient with her and ordering her around. When she runs away, he seems as upset about the loss of his money as her: “My daughter! O my ducats! O my daughter! … My ducats and my daughter!”

It would seem that Shylock cares for money more than anything else. Yet in an often forgotten moment When Shylock finds out his daughter traded his wife’s ring for monkey he cares only for its sentimental value. “Out upon her! Thou torturest me, Tubal: it was my turquoise; / I had it of Leah when I was a bachelor: / I would not have given it for a wilderness of monkeys.”

He wants revenge:

Perhaps it is the loss of Jessica as well as all the harsh treatment he has suffered from Antonio – and others – over the years that makes him bitter enough to ask for Antonio’s pound of flesh.

He cleverly argues in Act III, scene 1 that he is as much a man as a Christian is and so will follow the example the Christians set by seeking revenge. “The villainy you teach me I will execute.”

He is thrilled to hear that another of Antonio’s ships is lost, making Antonio more vulnerable. “I thank God, I thank God. Is it true, is it true?”

He is very confident that he will win, telling Antonio while he is in prison, “Thou call’dst me dog … But since I am a dog, beware my fangs.” He knows that the Venetian justice system will have to support him and so relishes beating Antonio at his own game.

He resolutely refuses to listen to all the pleas for mercy during the trial scene (from the Duke, Bassanio and Balthazar), insisting all the time on justice and his pound of flesh. Do you think this is this a sign of strength or foolishness? He could have pardoned Antonio and shown himself to be morally superior – but would this have done him any good in the long run?

Caught out by Portia, by the end of the trial he has lost all his money and has to suffer the humiliation of being forced to become a Christian. Shakespeare doesn’t give Shylock any lines to tell us how he feels. How should he react? We never find out what happens to him.

Weighing up all you know about Shylock, do you consider him to be more a villain or a victim?

Summary

Analysis

Themes

Back in Venice, Bassanio is trying to convince Shylock, a Jewish moneylender, to lend him 3,000 ducats for three months, with Antonio bound to repay the debt. Frustrated by Shylock’s stalling, Bassanio demands an answer. Shylock concedes that Antonio is a “good man” (1.3.16)-that is, Shylock believes Antonio will be good for the money that Bassanio wants to borrow. Therefore, after a little more waffling, he accepts the terms that Bassanio has proposed.

Even in this brief exchange, Shylock shows that he interprets the world through a different framework than Bassanio: he understands “good” as meaning “having enough money” whereas Bassanio, in theory, values other “good” qualities in his old friend. (Though Bassanio also, clearly, appreciates Antonio’s money.)

GreedvsGenerosity Love and friendshiphttp://www.litcharts.com/files/images/tt/0.gif

Shylock then asks whether he can speak with Antonio himself. Bassanio invites Shylock to dine with them both that night, but Shylock declines. Although he will do business with Christians, he explains, it would go against his religious principles to eat or drink or pray with them.

By distinguishing between business activities and his private life, and by refusing Bassanio’s offer to share a meal, Shylock shows that he has religious differences that set him apart from the Christian Venetians.

Prejudice and Intolerance..1http://www.litcharts.com/files/images/tt/0.gifhttp://www.litcharts.com/files/images/tt/0.gif

By coincidence, at this moment, Antonio appears. Although Shylock notices Antonio at once, at first he ignores him, remarking privately that he harbors an “ancient grudge” (1.3.47) towards the “Christian” (1.3.42). Shylock explains to the audience that he hates Antonio because he “lends out money gratis” (1.3.44), or free of interest, thereby bringing down interest rates for professional moneylenders such as himself (who are almost all Jews). More importantly, Antonio has repeatedly insulted the Jewish people in general and Shylock in particular. Shylock is determined to get revenge on Antonio not only for himself, but also for his “tribe” (1.3.51).

Law , mercy and revenge …2Shylock reveals his prejudice against Christians and explains the way in which he has experienced anti-Semitic prejudice himself. Notably, both groups’ ideas of the other revolve around ideas of commerce: the Christians believe it is wrong to practice usury (lending money for interest), whereas the Jews-who were forbidden by law from engaging in most other professions-often resorted to usury as a way to make a living. Being treated badly has given Shylock a desire for revenge.

Antonio approaches Shylock, saying that he ordinarily would not take part in a transaction involving interest but that, this one time, he will break his personal principle in order to help his friend. Shylock agrees to lend Bassanio the money.

1,2,3After stating his “Christian” business principles (and denigrating the Jews’ principles), Antonio publicly declares that there are no limits to what he will do for Bassanio.

Shylock then defends his practice of charging interest by citing the Biblical story of Jacob. When Jacob was working as a shepherd for his uncle Laban, Shylock reminds Antonio, he found a clever way to earn interest for his efforts. He cut a deal with Laban in which he got to keep any sheep that were born with a “streaked” color. Then he employed a magic trick to get all the sheep to breed streaked lambs, which he was, by contract, entitled to keep for himself. Shylock defends this kind of behavior, similar to his own, as representing “thrift” (1.3.90) rather than theft.

Citing the Book of Genesis, Shylock shows how different interpretations are the basis of his religious and personal differences with the Christians. The Christians believe that usury is immoral because it is unnatural to breed money from money. But Shylock interprets the Bible to say that charging interest is no different than Jacob’s breeding of animals, which Christian law would permit as totally natural.

Outraged that Shylock would cite the Bible in order to defend what Venetian Christians consider to be the sin of usury, Antonio insults Shylock. Shylock, in turn, cites Antonio’s previous mistreatment of him: Antonio has publicly abused him many times and even spat upon his clothing. Why, Shylock asks, should he lend to Antonio as freely as he would to a relative or friend? Enraged, Antonio begins to insult Shylock again. There is no need to pretend to be friends, he says: lend money to him as to an enemy.

Shylock reveals the years of abuse he has received from Antonio and other Venetian Christians as the source of his desire for revenge. By noting that Antonio is not his friend, he shows that this abuse has made it clear to him that he is an outsider to the polite society of Venetian friends on display in 1.1. Antonio, for his part, openly declares Shylock to be an enemy.

Teasing Antonio for getting so worked up, Shylock then goes on to propose an unusual compromise. He says that, this time, he will not charge interest on his loan. However, if Antonio defaults on the loan and is unable to pay, Shylock will be entitled to cut one pound of Antonio’s flesh from any part of Antonio’s body that Shylock chooses.

The contract Shylock proposes is hard for the Christians, and a modern audience or reader, to understand. By trading in flesh, rather than making money “breed” by usury, Shylock is actually adopting the Christians’ stated business principles but directing them toward a monstrous end, which mocks those Christian principles in turn.

Antonio agrees, despite Bassanio’s nervousness about binding his friend to such a potentially dangerous contract. Talking to himself, Shylock gleefully hints at the fact that he has achieved the first step in his still-mysterious plan for revenge. But Antonio remains unconcerned: he is sure his ships will return, with three times 3000 ducats, at least one month before Shylock’s deadline.

For the first time, Bassanio shows some scruples about putting his greed before his friend-who, by agreeing to put a price on his pound of flesh (and his life) has become like an animal headed to slaughter. Antonio will not be held back in his generosity, and by signing the contract agrees to be bound by law. So Shylock’s revenge plot starts moving into action.