Celtic myths and sagas

What was the importance of the Celtic myths and sagas on everyday life of the Celts at the time of the fall of the West-Roman Empire?

Introduction

Since our essay is about the Celtic peoples, we would like to discuss more than just their myths and normal life. Therefore we want to research the history of the Celts. We want to find out where they came from and when and where they settled in Great Britain. That is what this chapter is about.

What Is The Origin Of The Celts?

Origins

Before 800 BC the Celts were not known as a separate tribe. Their forbears were part of several tribes in Central- Europe. Their first clear appearance would be around the 9th century BC. Around 3000 BC a group of people speaking a language called Old-European, lived around the Caspian Sea in Russia. This language would evolve into other languages and eventually they evolved into Indian, Persian, Greek, Latin, Welsh and Gaelic. These people are called Kurgans. Around 2400 BC the Kurgan people domesticated horses and made Jewels out of gold and silver. They also began to spread to the south. Around 2000 BC a group settled in Turkey and another group settled in Greece. But another group settled around the downstream of the Donau. They are called Corded Ware People by Archaeologists. They then spread farther West and North until they came in the regions of Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Great-Britain. They settled permanently around 1200 BC. But around 1000 BC they came across the Scythes, another Russian group. They taught the group, who eventually would evolve to Celts, a lot about warfare and art.

Around 800 BC the Celts flourished in an area north of the Alps up to the Baltic and Atlantic shores. This flourishing culture is called Hallstatt culture. Hallstatt culture was nothing more than a stage in the development of the Celtic culture. Hundreds of Celtic oppida, fortified cities, dominated an area north of the Alps around 600 BC. From this time up to the beginning of our calendar is Celtic culture called La Tène culture. This culture was more developed than Hallstatt culture. Archaeologists found a lot of weapons, tools and other artefacts in the North of Switzerland on the banks of lake Neuchâtel. These weapons and other artefacts proved that La Tène culture was far more developed than Hallstatt culture. Archaeologists found these artefacts across the whole of Europe and concluded that La Tène culture indicated a whole new period in Celtic culture. Around 600 BC Celtic smiths learned how to make cheap and sustainable tools and weapons out of iron. In Hallstatt period, the production of iron was hard. Hallstatt culture mainly used iron for weapons. But because it was possible in La Tène culture to use iron for tools, like ploughs, they lived more prosperous. There was more food and so the Celtic population grew bigger and little villages turned into cities. In this time, the first conflicts between the Celts and the Greeks and Romans took place.

Important Battles

On 18 July 390 BC the army of Rome was defeated by the Celts on the banks of the River Allia, a river not far away from Rome. For the Romans this moment was devastating. They saw their beloved city being ransacked by these ‘barbarians’ called Celts. This was the first battle of the Gallic’s in order to invade Italy.

Before the battle a single tribe of the Gaul, called Senones, travelled over the Appennines searching for land to settle. The eventually camped outside a town called Clusium. Clusium lies in the Etruscan province of Siena. They began negotiating about land rights. Because the Clusians felt threatened by the Senones, they called for help. Rome was weakened by previous wars but sent three ambassadors. The three ambassadors were called: The Fabii Brothers. They were there to negotiate the situation. Because this didn’t work out so well, Quintes Fabius, one of the Fabii brothers, killed one of the Gallic leaders. Then the Senones sent their ambassadors to Rome. They demanded that the Fabians would be handed over to them for justice. The Romans refused and according to Roman historian Livy writes:

“those who ought to have been punished were instead appointed for the coming year military tribunes with consular powers (the highest that could be granted)…. The Celtic (Gallic) envoys were naturally – and rightly – indignant!”

The Senones were furious and began a war against the Romans. The Senones marched 130km from Clusium to Rome to take revenge. Livy describes their journey:

“Contrary to all expectation the Celts (Gauls) did them [the people of the countryside] no harm, nor took aught from their fields, but even as they passed close by their cities, shouted out that they were marching on Rome and had declared war only on the Romans, but the rest of the people they regarded as friends.”

And so the battle of the Allia started.

The Celts eventually won the battle, and left with 1000 pounds of gold.

Around 279 BC the Celts went via the Balkan to Greece, where they attacked the Greece Temples for the gods in Delphi. The Greek called the intruders keltoi or Galatae, that is why they called that region Galatia. The poets and writers were so appalled by the Celts that they compared the Celts with mythical titans, cruel godly giants who fought with the gods of Olympus.

In 225 BC there was a battle in Italy, the battle of Telamon, involving the Celts. Around the 3rd century BC, Celtic tribes were surrounded by two expanding cultures: the Romans south and Germanic tribes north. The battle of Telamon and the battle of Alesia (52 BC) are associated with the end of the Celts on the mainland of Europe.

Migrations And Reasons For Migrating

The migration period took place between the years 300 BC to 700 AD in Europe. The peoples migrating where the Goths, Vandals, Bulgars, Franks, Frisians, Suebi, Alans, Celts and other Germanic and Slavic tribes.

Around 400BC Celtic tribes started to migrate. The Celts migrated because of overpopulation. An increase in population would have led to instability because Celts had a society living of raiding and war. The problem of a growing population could be dealt with very easily. The Celts could let a small entourage with a leader move out from their homeland, in order to search for a new place to settle. Some of the Celts migrated to the Po valley. They wanted to negotiate about the land were they wanted to settle, it gave some problems. This was the beginning of the battle of the Allia I described earlier.

This attack on Rome made Italy weaker for the next half century. During this time Celtic raids took place. Raiding can be better understood if you look at it in the context of Celtic society system. Raiding was a way of maintaining and getting status and respect.

After some time Rome had recovered and wanted to expand again. They signed a peace treaty with the Senones, but the peace did not last long. Celtic raids became more and more frequent. After the first Punic war (264-41BC) Rome wanted to expand up to the north. In 232 BC the territory of the Senones was confiscated, and it changed into an Italian settlement. Some years later the battle of Telamon took place. The Romans slaughtered the Celtic warriors during the battle.

Then the Roman armies moved quickly to the Po valley. Thus, the Celtic tribes living there moved away. They migrated northwards into Transalpine Europe. In 186BC Celts, including 12000 warriors, moved through the Carnic Alps plundering and settling. The Roman army fought them. The Romans forced the few survivors to go back to their home. Around 100BC the Roman Empire conquered most Celtic settlements. Many Celts were murdered or romanised. Later Celts only lived on the British Isles. They lived in Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

To understand the motivation for migrating, we have to know more about ‘the raid’. If a Celt wants to enhance his status, he had to demonstrate his ability to lead, his courage and his generosity, by sharing the booty of the raid. When the raid had become a part of the Celtic status system, it was necessary to intensify raiding. A successful raid and sharing the booty enhanced the leader status. Thus, it was easier to attract more followers on the next raid. Younger men, wanting to enhance their status, would be attracted to compete and so the cycle goes on. It is easy to see the limit to raiding neighbours. There was need for more adventurous expeditions, long distance-raiding. The need to raid was the central point of Celtic society.

The Celts were forced to migrate when their population grew too big or when their territory became too small for expanding. Then they migrated to other places to raid and settle. Take the Helvetii around 59BC. The Helvetii lived in Switzerland and were surrounded by mountains and the Rhine. This meant it was difficult to live over a wide area and in making war on neighbouring tribes. Because the Helvetii enjoyed fighting, they wanted to expand. They knew their territory was too small for their population. They eventually set of for a new territory on the Atlantic coast of Gaul.

Conclusion

Celts have a long history starting from Central-Europe . Around 3000BC Celtic forebears lived around the Caspian Sea in Russia. They spread south and even settled in Turkey and Greece. They also reached Norway, Denmark, Sweden and Great-Brittain around 1200BC. Celts flourished around 800BC North of the Alps, Hallstatt culture. Around 600BC they formed La Tène culture. Then after 400BC Celtic tribes started to migrate, some to the Po Valley. Eventually Celts vanished from the mainland of Europe and only existed on the British Isles. Celts lived there in Ireland, Wales and Scotland. The reason why they migrated is because of they way they lived. They needed to raid to get more status. This is described more thoroughly later.

Introduction

Because of the fact our main question is set in a certain period, the period of the fall of the West-Roman Empire, we want to know a little more about the political and demographical situation of Europe. That is why we are going to research the Migration Period and the decline and fall of the West-Roman Empire. Because these were very important happenings in this period we also want to research if Celtic people were involved with them. We expect they were involved with the Migration Period and therefore the fall of the West-Roman Empire.

So this chapter is about the political and demographical situation in Europe and the involvement of the Celts.

What Was The Political And Demographical Situation In Europe In The 5th Century?

What Caused The Migration Period?

Introduction

In this paragraph will the causes of the Migration Period discussed. The purpose of this paragraph is to find out the political and demographical situation of Europe and if the Celts were migrating in this period as well.

The Migration Period took place between the years 300 to 700 AD. This period can be divided into two phases. The first phase occurred from 300 to 500 and the second phase from 500 to 700. During the first phase the following peoples migrated: the Goths, Vandals, Bulgars, Alans, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Franks and other Germanic and Slavonic tribes. The Celts had migrated far before the Migration Period and settled on the British Isles. They moved approximately around 100 BC because the Roman culture and the Germanic tribes encircled them. However, in the south of England some Celtic tribes decided to migrate because they were in conflict with the Anglo-Saxons. Only the first phase has any importance for us, therefore we will only discuss that phase.

There can be pointed out several causes for the Migration Period. Some of them lie within the Roman Empire and others are merely caused by Germanic tribes.

From the 3rd century on the (West) Roman Empire gradually declined, which will be discussed in great detail later on. The 3rd century was a period wherein the Roman Empire suffered from civil wars, economical depressions, outbreaks of diseases and several invasions from Germanic tribes. Roman generals who fought for the right of succession after Emperor Alexander Severus was assassinated caused the civil wars. Because of these civil wars the frontiers were not as highly protected as they should have been, which offered Germanic tribes such as the Vandals and Goths a chance to enter the Empire. These invasions weakened the Roman Empire even more and caused it to fall apart into three states; a Gallic Empire, Palmyrene Empire and in between those states the Roman Empire. In 270 Aurelian became Emperor and he was able to fight back the Vandals and Goths. He even managed to reunite the Roman Empire in 274. But the frontiers were clearly weakened, which would make it even harder to keep the Germanic tribes from invading.

Besides the central authority was considerably weakened as well. The Roman Empire had become too large to be ruled centrally. That is why there were also a lot of local authorities. Because of the local administrations the Roman ‘identity’ became less and less, which means the population did not feel specifically Roman. The decisions made in Rome were far away. Therefore the local administrations made decisions that were more in their advantage rather than beneficial for the entire Empire. In the border regions Germanic tribes could easily settle because the local population did not object.

Another cause for the migrations is that the population of the Germanic tribes significantly increased. Therefore they had to spread and move into the borders of the Roman Empire.

A lot of Germanic tribes in the border areas depended on the Roman wealth because they were ‘hired’ by the Romans. The Romans namely used Germanic warriors as a defence against more hostile tribes. In exchange the tribes obtained gifts and support. This is how the Germanic tribes obtained more power. As the wealth of the Roman Empire decreased because of the crisis in the 3rd century, the support and gifts given to the Germanic people also decreased. The Germanic tribes feared they would lose power. They wanted to remain powerful, which caused them to enter the Roman Empire in search for new fortunes.

This coincided with the rise of the Huns, a nomadic people originating from Central-Asia. These Huns had tried to conquer the Empire of China in vain in the 4th century. After their defeat, they moved towards the west to try the same. The invasions of the Huns caused other Germanic tribes to migrate as well. The Huns caused a domino effect. They invaded Europe in 374 and defeated the Alans, a people of shepherds. The Alans joined the Huns and together they invaded the Gothic Empire. The Gothic Empire extended from the Danube to the Black Sea and also covered a large area of Southern-Russia. The Visigoths and Ostrogoths inhabited the Gothic Empire. The Ostrogoths were defeated easily by the armies of the Huns. The Visigoths were afraid to get into a fight with the Huns, so they crossed the Danube to settle within the Roman Empire. The Goths made other tribes move as well. They soon got into a conflict with the Roman Emperor and because of that they took over Thrace. After 7 years of war Emperor Theodosius managed to make the Goth settle. However, around the year 400 the Goths started to plunder again under the leadership of Alaric. The Goths marched to Northern-Italy. The Vandal Stilicho, who was in charge of the West-Roman Empire, did not have any military forces in that area. Therefore he had to call for legions from Gaul and Britain. These area’s therefore were not protected well and that enabled the Picts and Scots to settle in Britain and the Germanic people in Gaul. Stilicho did defeat Alaric and the Goth retreated from Italy.

In 406 the Vandals, Suebi and Alans crossed the Rhine close to Mainz and settled in Gaul too. Some of the Vandal tribes moved to Spain and Northern-Africa as well. For that matter Stilicho was murdered and his successor weakened the Roman army severely because he took some very unfortunate measures, which caused many Goths in the army to cross over to the army of Alaric. Besides he had replaced many higher officers with fewer capabilities. Alaric knew the Roman army had been weakened and that is why he planned another attack on Italy. In 410 the Goths sacked Rome. In the same year Alaric died and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Athaulf. Under the leadership of Athaulf the Goth gradually moved out of Italy and moved to Spain where they founded a Gothic kingdom. During the founding of that kingdom, many Alans were wiped out. The Suebi and Vandals were forced to move to the north of Spain. Not all of the Goths settled in the Gothic kingdom, some of them moved to the area around Toulouse. In 410 the Romans retreated from Britain permanently. This meant that the Scots and Picts could settle in Britain. Around 425 many provinces were not under the authority of the Roman Empire anymore. In 425 the Roman Empire consisted only of Italy and Africa.

Back to the Huns. After they had gained the victory over the Goths, they gradually moved towards the west. The Emperor of the East-Roman Empire, Theodosius II, gave a lot of money to the most important among the Huns for years to maintain peace. Then in 434 Attila became the leader of the Huns. He had a strong will and he was imperious. He wanted to expand his power. Attila did this quite successfully, since he was able to found an empire that reached from Northern- and Central Europe and a large area of Asia. Attila made Slavonic, Sarmatians and Germanic tribes join him. In 446 and 447 the Huns invaded Greece and they even mover towards Constantinople, but they were never able to take over the city. In 451 the Huns moved even further to the west. They crossed the Rhine and moved to Gaul. The Huns besieged Orléans, but during the siege Aetius, leader of the Roman Empire, approached with a large army. The Huns raised the siege and moved to Chalons because the landscape there was more in their favour. The battle that took place in 451 is known as the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains. The Roman army was supported by the Visigoths and the Huns by the Ostrogoths. The battle was a massacre and it sort of ended in a draw. The Huns retreated somewhat to the east. In 452 they invaded Italy. They murdered everyone in their way and those who were fortunate to escape, fled to the marshes of the Adrian Sea. In 453 Attila died and with his death his empire fell apart too.

The stadtholder of the province Africa, Bonifacius, got into a conflict with Rome. Bonifacius called on the Vandalic king Genseric for assistance. The Vandals moved from Spain to Africa and settled around Cathage. This took place in 439. When Emperor Valentinian was assassinated in 455, Genseric decided to go to Rome to plunder the city. In 455 the Vandals sacked Rome and plundered the city within 14 days. After they had left Rome they ravaged the coastal region. The Vandals were able to do so because they had a fleet. In 457 Anthemius became Emperor of the West-Roman Empire and together with Emperor Leo I of the eastern half of the Empire he decided to fight against the Vandals and conquer Africa. From 461 to 468 they tried to defeat the Vandals, but they failed miserably. The Vandals were able to continue plundering.

In Northern-Europe the Angles, Saxons and Jutes migrated to the British Isles in the years 450 and 451. The Celtic tribes were forced to move to the northern and western corners of Britain. The Celts founded their own kingdoms in these areas. In the south of England the Bretons, a Celtic tribe, got into a conflict with the Anglo-Saxons which caused them to migrate to Brittany.

In the 5th century the Franks migrated to Gaul. This happened quit peacefully.

With that, the first phase of the Migration Period ended.

The research shows that there are many causes for the peoples of Europe to migrate. Because the Roman Empire had weakened the Germanic tribes had more opportunities to invade the Empire. Also their population had increased, so they needed more space. There was also a domino effect; when the Huns invaded Europe they made several tribes migrate. These tribes again made other tribes to migrate. Some migrations were caused by certain political situations. It can be concluded that the Celtic tribes were not really a part of the Migration Period. They lived in Britain and only a few tribes moved away when they got into a conflict with the Anglo-Saxons.

Were The Celts Involved With The Fall Of The West-Roman Empire?

Introduction

This paragraph is about finding out the reasons of the collapse of the West-Roman Empire. We also want to research if the Celts were a reason for the fall of the West-Roman Empire

Many causes can be pointed out for the fall of the West-Roman Empire. It was a process of centuries of decline, which resulted in a split of the empire and later on in the fall of the West-Roman Empire. When the West-Roman Empire exactly started to decline, cannot precisely be told.

It is important to discuss the centuries of decay, because in those centuries lie the causes of the fall.

Many historians think the decay started in the 3rd century, a period of Imperial Crisis. This period began in 235 and ended in 284 AD. The crisis began when Emperor Alexander Severus was assassinated. A period of 50 years followed wherein more than 50 emperors ruled. Because generals and emperors were preoccupied with fighting each other, the frontiers were severely neglected. This made it possible for tribes to invade. In 258 the Empire fell apart in 3 states because of the civil wars. It was divided into a Gallic, Roman and Palmyrenic empire. In 270 Aurelian became Emperor. In his 5-year reign he defeated the Vandals, Goths and Palmyrenics and in 274 he was able to reunite the Empire. However, the Empire still suffered under more fundamental problems such as the right of succession. The right of succession still was not properly organised, which caused the civil wars to continue.

The Roman Empire had grown too big, which made it hard for an absolute ruler to rule efficiently. In the 3rd century the Roman economy suffered from hyperinflation. The inflation caused the economy to collapse. The inflation was caused by the alternation of emperors. Each new emperor wanted to strengthen his position by gaining the support of the army. This could be accomplished by paying the legions more money. The easiest way of doing that was simply cutting coins into smaller pieces with less value. This made the coin almost valueless. Because the Roman coin almost lost all its value, the trade network collapsed as well. The unrest made it dangerous for merchants to travel. Obviously, this damaged the economy.

The period of crisis ended in 384 when Diocletianus became Emperor. He reformed the Empire administration by dividing it into 4 prefectures that were divided into dioceses. This made it possible to rule the Empire more efficiently. He also tried to recover the economy by reforming the coinage.

Still there were a lot of fundamental problems. The economy was in a crisis, which made it necessary to have a large budget to maintain key elements such as infrastructure. However, such a budget did not exist. Moreover the economy of the Roman Empire existed only out of the product that were produced in the colonies and there were hardly any innovations or exportations.

On political and military domain the unrest remained. Constantine the Great moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople in 330 because the eastern part of the Empire did not suffer from great problems and there was far more wealth. After the death of Theodosius in 395 the definitive split of the Roman Empire was a fact. His son Honorius became Emperor of the West-Roman Empire and his other son Arcadius became Emperor of the East-Roman Empire. Honorius was not that much of an emperor and because of his weak reign Germanic tribes could settle within the Empire quite easily. Because of the split the 2 empires developed quit differently. The decline of the West-Roman Empire continued whereas the East-Roman Empire existed a 1000 years longer.

There were also problems in the military. Many soldiers of the Roman army were Germanic. These Germanic soldiers barely had any bonding with the Roman civilization and merely took jobs in the army for the money. This does not make the army very reliable. After all, when another party offers more the mercenaries will cross over. These Germanic soldiers gained more power as well, because at a certain point they were able to become officers. The emperors tried to keep the soldiers in line, but when they thought the emperor was crossing the line they would simply dismiss him and chose another emperor. This obviously stimulated the political unrest.

The migrations are seen as results of the decline of the Roman state rather than a cause. However, the migrations might have amplified the decay somewhat.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the Roman Empire simply had become too large at a certain point, which caused political and military problems. These problems caused economical problems. The Roman Empire consisted too many different people with their own languages and customs etc. and the long frontiers simply could not be secured against invasions at a certain point, especially with a weakened army.

The internal problems caused a long period of decline that resulted in the dismissal of the last West-Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus by Odoacer in 476.

Now the causes of the fall of the West-Roman Empire are known, it can be concluded that the Celts were not involved whatsoever. They had moved to Britain long before the Migration Period and hardly were involved with the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

With the results of the research we can conclude that against our expectations the Celts were involved nor with the Migration Period nor with the fall of the West-Roman Empire. The research of both the origin of the Celts as the Migration Period shows that the Celtic tribes had moved to Britain around 100 BC, long before the Migration Period. That means that they could not have possibly caused the Migration Period. The research of the fall of the West-Roman Empire shows us that there were several political and economical causes for the slow decline of the Empire. The Migrations amplified the decline somewhat, but since the Celts were not migrating they were also not involved with the fall of the West-Roman Empire.

Introduction

If we want to know whether the myths and sagas influenced the everyday life of the Celts we need to know more about the everyday life. That is what this chapter is about; finding out what everyday life was about. We consider the following aspects as everyday life: means of existence, primary and secondary necessities of life, warfare and religion.

We think that Celtic life was quite basic because they were living in tribes. Our expectation is that they were agriculturists and therefore did not trade a lot. Even though that means they were probably not rich, if rich means having money, we do think they made a lot of art. It is probably a prejudice that the Celts liked fighting, but we do think that warfare was quit important because we think tribes competed with each other. Also we want to know what their warfare was like. We expect that the Celtic religion was a polytheistic one because basically all religions from that time except for Christianity and Judaism were polytheistic.

How Did The Celts Live?

What Were Their Means Of Existence?

Introduction

If one wants to research what everyday life was like, one should know what the means of existence were since that is the most important thing of life. Everything else is secondary. So in this paragraph we will discuss what the Celts did to provide for food.

How a community produces food depends on different processes like the climate, soil and the technological capability. All three things vary. Climate can change, even over a short period of time. Soil can degenerate and lose it nutrients and better tools can improve the amount of food that is produced. These three control the food-producing strategy. The food-producing strategy is never the same though. Because Britain has an immensely varied geomorphology and climate, there are many food-producing systems.

In the most parts of south-east Britain, the inhabitants mostly produced grain. Throughout the second millennium the main crops were: emmer wheat (Triticum diccocum) and naked barley (Hordeum tetrasticum). But this changed in the early first millennium. Naked barley was replaced by the hulled barley (Hordeum hexasticum) and emmer wheat became less popular due to diversification. Later emmer wheat was replaced by spelt in central and the southern regions of Britain. By the middle of iron age spring-sown barley crops were introduced. This meant that fresh grain was available for a longer period of time.

In late iron age there was more diversification. Now they also cultivated Oats and Celtic beans. The decline in fertility of the soil is a factor that influenced the diversification. At the end of the Iron age, more bread wheat (Triticum aestivocompactum) is used. Apart from these cereals, Celts grew other cereals as well but a lot less. Rye (Secale cereale) occurred in Wessex. Rye is a hardy crop and grows in all kinds of circumstances. Thus, Rye is found at all different sites.

When Celts harvested their crops, they first uprooted their crops. Secondly, they grabbed the crop below the ear and cut it below the hand, using small iron cutting hooks. The balanced sickle was introduced in the late iron age. After this, the crops had to be dried. They made temporary ovens to dry the crops. Then the crops could be stored. Archaeological evidence implies two storing methods: below-ground storage and above ground storage. Those below storage pits were mostly beehive, or barrel shaped. They used to be small but later on they got larger, about 2 m deep. The above ground storage are buildings made from timber. They were square or rectangular buildings. Those buildings were always situated against the boundary of the settlement. They did this, because food would be save from fires.

The grain stored in the pits had to be consumed rather quickly, because once they opened up a storage, the food would degenerate very fast. But food was shared between all members of the community, or used as a trading good. Food did not had a change to degenerate.

Before anything could be harvested, the farmers had to make the ground ready for their crops. Firstly, they ploughed their fields using simple iron-shod crook or bow ard. The field was ploughed in two directions at right angels, breaking up the soil to be able to sow. The field was approximately 64 m square. The fields were ploughed by an ard drawn by two oxen. It would take a day to plough one field.

Harvesting crops was not possible without the use of flocks and herds, they provided manure for the fields. Cows and sheep were most kept and pigs were not mainly kept. The cows were small Celtic shorthorns. The sheep were also small. Dogs were also used, mainly as a working dogs and sometimes as pets. Small horses, ponies (1,2 m high) like an Exmoor pony, were reared for pulling.

Sheep were essential for the manure needed for the fields. They also provided for wool, milk and meat. In the first year there were not many sheep slaughtered. Most of the flock lived at least 2 years and more. There are some differences between regions in the use of sheep for meat. Mutton was not consumed very much compared with beef.

Cows are more difficult to keep than sheep, they constantly need to have water and they have to be kept in enclosures in winter months. Sheep could stay out all year. They also needed food like straw and hay. There are some advantages in having the stock near the houses, they were protected from wild animals and looking after them was easy. Cows are kept for milk and meat. They were also used for ploughing the fields. Because of this, cows were mostly kept to maturity.

Pigs were not mainly kept, but in some areas like Highfield near Salisbury and Wilts pigs were more popular. This is because the area made it easier to keep pigs. Pigs were kept for meat.

Horses were only found in small numbers. The mature animals would be used for ploughing and pulling. Sometimes they were slaughtered, but mostly Celts did not slaughter horses. Horses were not bred, they were captured from the wild and trained. They ale were important in war, pulling the chariots.

There was not much need to hunt. They mostly used the deer’s antlers for tools. When they hunted they hunted on deer and various birds. Fish were rarely found, though on the coast the Celts did eat large quantities of fish.

Dogs were kept as working dogs. Their main jobs were hunting, and herding. Sometimes they were kept as pets. Celts used foxhound type of dogs for hunting, and also kept retriever like dogs. They were not yet breeding selectively.

Keeping animals was very important for the Celts and their economy. Celts built special structures for their animals to keep them.

Conclusion

Celts cultivated their own food. They mostly produced grain, oats and Celtic beans. They stored their food above the ground and below the ground. They used ploughs pulled by Oxen to make their land ready for crops. They also kept cattle for food purposes and clothes. Sheep for their wool and meat and cows for their leather and meat. Horses were mainly working animals. Dogs were trained for hunting.

What Were The Primary And Secondary Necessities Of Life?

Introduction

In this paragraph we will discuss what kind of forms of primary and secondary necessities of life there were. This will help to create an image of what Celtic life was like.

In Celtic culture, Art and craftsmanship was very important to the community. They used art everywhere, from everyday objects to making swords. Celts also needed skills to make clothes and jewellery.

Celtic pottery and metal works from the Hallstatt period (from 800 to 500 BC) are decorated with simple but outstanding geometrical shapes. Objects they imported from Greece were copied by craftsmen and they added some local shapes to it. Celts used many arc lines in their art. This is typically for La Tène style. The curling style of Celts survived centuries of Celtic art and inspired the curling Celtic manuscripts in the early medieval time in Ireland. La Tène style used many complex geometrical shapes. Later on (after 500 BC) they also used plant and animal shapes. When Celts wanted to add some colour to their objects, like swords, they used coral and glass. British smiths made objects decorated with asymmetric, but balanced, shapes. When Celts learned how to enamel, they started to use this technique on various objects. (plaatje blz 15 de kelten jullette wood).

The precise meaning of the Celtic symbols used on objects is hard to determine. Sources say that Celts loved metaphors and riddles. The reason why Celts richly decorated their objects is that they wanted to show their status. The influence of the Roman culture was also shown in Celtic objects. When Christianity came along, Celts made beautiful sculptured crosses. (afb blz 118 Juliette Wood).

Classical sources say that Celts did not have a writing, though the find of inscriptions contradicts this. Also the idea of Celts being a primitive people is wrong. This is shown in Celtic art and craftsmanship. Romans did have influence on Celtic writing. Celts used Latin in order to write names on coins. Sometimes the Celtic language is written with Latin or Greece alphabet. Between the fifth and seventh century AD in Ireland, Irish used a writing named Ogam. It is used for names on grave monuments. The writing consisted of stripes, Roman numbers influenced this writing. Most myths and legend were not written down, but orally transmitted.

For clothes you need textiles, and Celts mostly used wool. Sheep would be sheered or plucked and after washing the wool, it would be combed. After that they spun the wool, what made is possible to colour the wool with vegetable dyes.

Flax was used to make linen. Flax was harvested in July and August. Nettle was also a good fibre used in making fabrics. Leather was a important product for the Celts, just like wool. Making leather ready for use involved three stages: First the skin would have to be removed and cleaned, then tanning was possible. After this, the leather could be used to make the finished article. For skinning Celts used iron knives. The fat substances on the skin were removed with rib knives. Hair was removed with metal knives.

Clothes and harness were the main products made out of leather, but leather was also used for other objects. The made containers out of it. They also used ceramics for containers, but leather containers were more useful when travelling. In areas with little pottery, Celts mainly used Leather and wood instead of ceramics.

Another craftsmanship is hurdle-making and carpentry. The tools a hurdle-maker used were a saw, bill hook and knife. The reaping hook was used to cut off branches and leaves. The carpenter had many products he made, on of them were wheeled vehicles. Making wheeled vehicles asked for skills. The carpenters also made boats. Celts had a high developed boat building skills. The vessels were not regularly used on the open sea.

In south-east Britain, Celts produced pottery at an high scale. They were used in everyday live for holding water and were used as ornaments. They were mainly made out of clay and decorated with iron and were painted. Simple bonfire fires were enough for making the pottery.

Celts are famous for their beautiful ironworks, like the swords and daggers they produced. You needed to be skilled in order to be able to work with iron. Most areas were the Celts lived in Britain were near iron deposits. That is why they used a lot of iron. The crushed ore mixed with charcoal would be placed in a bowl and heated up to 800°C. Then it would be cooled down and then the iron could be shaped with the process of heating an cooling. From iron Celts also made tools, like hooks for harvesting. Bronze was used for vessels and trinkets as brooches, rings and bracelets. Gold and silver were mainly used for decorative purposes. Gold was scarce and not much used before the first century. Ironworks mostly had the purpose for making weapons or tools. After the first century BC Celts also started making coins. Celts did not pay with coins for goods. They mostly traded their products, they did use rare shells and iron bars for paying. But after the Roman period, Coins were used more and more for paying for goods.

Conclusion

Celts also produced art. Mostly they decorated their clothes, and wealthier people wore wealthier clothes. Celts also decorated every day products like pots. Mostly they used plant and animal shapes. Animals were used because of their symbolism. This will be discussed later on. Decoration also showed someone’s status. How more decorations, the more status. For clothes they used, wool and leather. Carpentry was also important. Carpenters made fences to keep animals. Also vehicles and boats for transport were made. Pots were used for all sorts of things. They also were richly decorated. Ironworks were for making swords, and other weapons and for making tools.

What Was The Nature Of Celtic Warfare?

Introduction

In this paragraph we will discuss how and with what the Celts fought. Also we are trying to find out if the prejudices are true.

Celts are being generalized as barbarians who loved war and killing. This generalisation is not entirely right. Celts were involved in many wars but they also showed that they are more intelligent than barbarians.

The basic weapons of Celts were swords, daggers, slings and spears. Swords have been used for a very long time. In the late bronze age, most swords in south-Britain were made of bronze. Short swords were rare in Britain, though daggers were popular among the elite. The swords of La Tène period were, compared to later periods, short. About 50 and 65 cm long. Later the swords were made longer, to about 70 and 90 cm long. The shape changed as well. The early swords were designed for both trusting and slashing. They had long sharp points. Later the swords were better adapted for slashing. The change may presume a change in fighting method. The slashing sword was better adapted on attacking from horseback.

Spears and lances were also frequently used in battle. The spears were thrown at the beginning of a battle to weaken the enemy. Spears inflicted damage to the shields of the enemy, so the enemy would drop their shields and fight without a shield. This made them weaker and easier to defeat. The lance was used for trusting, this was a cavalry weapon.

Another important weapon was the sling. Slings were easily made out of leather and as ammunition pebbles could be used. The sling had a defensive purpose. The sling could be used in two ways: pebbles could be swung up vertically, in that way the pebbles would fall as rain drops on the enemies. When swung horizontally, the pebbles had a high velocity. When hitting the body, serious damaged was inflicted. The sling was also used for hunting, and protecting herds and flocks from predators.

The shield was made of leather or wood or a combination of these. Sometimes shields were faced with bronze. The shield was oval shaped and held in the left hand by means of a grip placed in the middle. The grip was covered with wood and leather in order to protect the knuckles.

The helmets were made from bronze with large horns on them.

Another weapon used by the Celts is noise. In the description of the battle of Telamon from Polybuis he says:

The Roman forces were terrified by the fine order of the Celtic host, and the dreadful din, for there were innumerable hornblowers and trumpeters and, as the whole army were shouting their war-cries at the same time, there was such a tumult of sound that it seemed that not only the trumpeters and the soldiers but all the country round had got a voice caught up in the cry.

Polybius, Hist., 2.31

Then another special piece of weaponry is the chariot. Julius Caesar describing his encounter with Celts on the summer of 55 BC:

We ran the ships ashore on a flat and open beach. But the natives had discovered our intention. They had sent on ahead their cavalry and the chariots which they regularly use in battle. The rest of their troops came on behind and were stopping our men landing.

(BG, IV, 23-4)

Celts possessed three forces: infantry, cavalry and charioteers. Caesar found it hard fighting Celts because he was unused to fight against chariots on large numbers. There is a tactic behind chariot warfare: They will drive in all directions and throw spears, this way their opponents got confused by the terror of galloping horses everywhere. Then the warriors jumped down from their chariots and fight on foot. The chariot drivers will drive away from the battle, if the enemy would outnumber them then Celts could make a quick withdraw. In this way, when Celts fight they were mobile. With daily training Celts became so skilled that they were able to control their horses in full gallop on steep hills.

That Celts engaged in warfare before the arrival of Caesar is certain. Classic Celtic warfare was a way of establishing someone’s social position. An individual with a high status would be the war leader. The war leader could encourage people to follow him on a raid. This warfare was also a meaning of showing other clans their power. For extending the territorial boundaries, warfare was used as well.

As you can see, warfare was in the form of raiding. Raids could be on a individual settlement or a group of settlements. The aim of the raids was always the same: Gaining booty, power and respect.

How Celts fought varied with time and place. When attacking for property, mostly farmsteads and hillforts would be attacked. When attacking in the open, they show specific battle behaviour: The two enemies would face each other from either side of the field. The woman and children stood behind the soldiers, so they could see the battle. Then the warrior heroes would ride out on chariots, screaming challenges and abuses to the enemy. Then an individual contest between the warrior heroes began. After these fights it would be clear which side won the fight, or the other soldiers would start attacking each other and the real war began. Whatever happened, the fighting would always stop at nightfall. They would even start again the next morning.

Conclusion

Warfare was an important part of Celtic live. Celts raided in order to gain status, power, respect and of course booty. Raiding was also necessary to extend territorial boundaries. Before the battle started, each party showed off their strength by screaming and riding with their chariots. Some individual heroes of a tribe would fight first, after the fight the real war started or the winner was already chosen and the losing party retreated. Celts used a varying range of weapons: Sword, daggers, spears and slings. For protection they used shields and helmets. Another important weapon were their Chariots pulled by horses. They could retreat quickly and move around the battlefield quickly. In a way the prejudices are true, because they raided to get status. It can be concluded that they did like fighting in a way.

What Kind Of Religion Did They Adhere?

Introduction

This paragraph is about researching every aspect of Celtic religion. This means finding out if they had a polytheistic religion, what deities there were, if they had rituals, if they believed in life after death and if there were clergies. Also we want to find out if the religion had changed over the years.

Polytheism, Nature And Deities

The Celtic religion was an animistic polytheistic religion. This means that they believe in spirits who live in everything, so they also live in plants and rock. The spirits can be called deities. It must be said that there did not exist such a thing as a trans-Celtic religion. Of course there were similarities, but often Celts believed in their local Gods and Goddesses. Because of these differences there are more than 300 Celtic deities known today.

Because the Celtic religion was so deeply connected with Nature the Celts did not worship their Gods in temples. They believed that their Gods lived everywhere in nature and therefore the preferred natural places to worship their Gods and Goddesses. Especially certain trees like oaks and ashes and lakes, springs and streams were places to worship. These holy places were called after the deities with whom they were associated. Especially water had a strong spiritual power according to the Celts. They believed that the power of springs could heal. Because of this believe real places of pilgrimage aroused near holy springs such as the spring near Bath.

Even though not in every Celtic pantheon the same deities appeared, with an exception, some kind of deities were worshiped in all the Celtic lands. This was because the Gods were so connected with Nature. There were sun gods, war gods, mother goddesses and water gods. The Celtic deities fulfilled certain tasks. Besides that the Gods were worshipped for their tasks were they also worshipped in pairs like the God Lugh and the Goddess Rosmerta.

Like said before, the Celts believed that springs worked healing. Because of the animistic religion they worshipped healing Goddesses that were associated with these springs. The most known healing goddess is Brighid, she will be discussed later on. Other examples of healing goddesses are the Irish Goddess Airmed and Sulis Minerva of the holy spring of Bath. Because water was seen as holy, many rivers and lakes had a Goddess as well. Several waters are named after Brighid and Sulis Minerva. Damona, Bormana, Coventina and Treveri were important water Goddessed in the area of Northumberland. In Ireland are the rivers Boyne and Shannon named after the Goddesses Boann and Sinnan. There are also some seagods known in Ireland like Manannán mac Lir and the Goddesses Fand and Li Ban.

The most important Goddesses were the mother goddesses. The mother goddesses represented fertile soil, fertility, regeneration and care. These Goddesses could transform into many forms. Often they are portrayed with domestic thing like bread.

Many Celtic Goddesses were connected with warfare and hunt. The most known are the Irish Goddesses The Morrigan and Badhbh. These Goddesses are mostly portrayed with preys or dogs.

There can be many other deities point out, like gods of protection, gods of horses and gods of the forest. But because there are so many, we will not discuss them.

Now we will discuss important deities that are most known and are worshipped in all the Celtic lands.

The Irish God The Dagda is seen as the leader of the Irish pantheon. He is a God who is good at everything and that makes him very powerful. The Dagda is seen as the protector of the tribe. He is a God of warfare and wisdom as well. The Dagda is often portrayed with a spear, which represents his power.

The Dagda had several daughters and Brighid is one of them. She is one of the most important Goddesses. Like said before she was a healing goddess. Moreover she was a goddess of fertility and wisdom. She is one of the Triple Goddesses.

Another example of an important Irish Triple Goddess is The Morrigan. She is also known as Maeve and Macha. She is often referred to as the Queen of Demons. She represents war, fertility and prophecy. The Morrigan is known as a destructive goddess. She plays an important part in the Irish myth of Cu Chulainn.

The God that appears the most in the Celtic lands is Lugh. He was worshipped in all of Britain, France and even the Netherlands. Cities like Lyon and Leiden were named after him. Lugh was the son of Cian and Ethniu. Because he was such an important God he was portrayed in triple form as well. Many myths were about him too. Lugh is the equivalent of the Roman God Mercury. Lugh was the God of art, war, hunt and protector of trade. That is why he is often portrayed with a hammer, a symbol of protection. He is often worshipped together with Rosmerta. She is the Goddess of abundance. Translated her name means ‘Big giver’. She is often portrayed with symbols of abundance such as honey or wine.

Sulis is an important healin goddess, known for the springs near Bath. She is often called Sulis Minerva because Ceasar thought her as the equivalent of Minerva in his Comentarii de bello Gallico. Sulis was also a Goddess of fertility, happiness and warfare.

A God that is worshipped everywhere Cernunnos, the Horned God. He is always connected with forests. Cernunnos was the master of all animals and because he was associated with forest and animals he is always portrayed with antlers. Besides being a God of the forest, Cernunnos was also God of prosperity, wealth of nature, hunt and male potency. His antlers also represent regeneration. Often Cernunnos is portrayed with attributes like coins and food, which refers to prosperity and wealth. Cernunnos was a very important God for the Celts because they ere convinced that he was responsible for the hunt. The hunt was very important because hunt provided for food and clothes.

The Celtic deities were for centuries long not anthropomorphic. From 279 BC on the Classic influence on the Celts became more and more, especially on their art, which caused the Celts to portray their deities as humans as well. Very important for the portrayal of deities was the Divine Triads. With triads is meant the triple unity. The Celts portrayed important deities as triple, often with 3 heads. It is not completely clear why it was so important, but it is often thought that it represents continuity of time or universe. With continuity of time is meant the connection between past, present and future and with continuity of universe is meant the connection between earth, heaven and underworld. Especially mother goddesses were portrayed as Triple Goddesses, most likely to amplify their power as fertility goddesses. The Celts also believed in magical transformation of their deities. This was a symbol for the changeability of the cosmos. Especially in stories and art the deities transformed.

The Celtic deities played often an important part in stories, myths and sagas.

Introduction

In this chapter we will research the myths and sagas. We want to know if there are any difference between the myths and sagas from Ireland and Wales. Also we want to find out what purpose these myths and sagas had. Because of the period we are investigating we also want to try to find any influences from the Romans on the myths and sagas.

We expect that there must be differences between myths and sagas from Ireland and Wales, because the Celts are not really one people and we already found out that there was not one trans-Celtic religion, so that will probably mean that myths differ too. We think that the purpose of myths was to explain certain phenomenons, to teach people about morality and to tell about the deities. Our expectation is that the Romans most certainly had an influence on the myths because they brought Christianity and they had an influence in the Celtic pantheon in a way.

Is There A Difference Between Myths And Sagas From Ireland And Wales?

Introduction

In this paragraph we will compare some myths and essential aspects of myths from Ireland and Wales with one another so we can conclude if they indeed do differ.

Celtic myths

Celts had many stories called myths. Celtic myths are linked with Celtic religion. Myths are symbolic stories, used to tell a hidden message in the story. Myths were answers to questions like: Why do we exist? And what happens after we die? Myths also explained natural phenomena. Myths tell about heroes, gods and sacred creatures.

Celtic myths and legends were not written down by the Celts. Celts told myths to each other and they would tell it to the next generation and so on. In the sixth century AD, the first Irish myths were written down by monks. We know much about the Irish myths. The myths from Wales are not so well know. The myths form Wales are not documented like the Irish myths. Archaeological objects are important for understanding myths and their purpose.

Myths From Ireland

The stories known as the Ulster-cycle tells about Ulaid, the man of Ulster. The myths tells about conflicts with their neighbour province Connacht.

The cattle raid of Cooley:

This myth is about the conflict between Ulster and their neighbour province Connacht. The story is about a bull, called Donn (‘the brown’), from Cuailnge in Ulster. It’s is not about a normal cattle raid, what happened frequently. Queen Mebd and her husband Ailil of Connacht were laying in bed and bragging about their possessions. They had possessions of equal value, except for one: Ailill had a big bull with white horns called Findbennach. This bull was the strongest and most fertile of all the bulls. Mebd was jealous and searched far and wide for another magnificent bull. Then she heard of a magnificent brown bull in Ulster. Daire mac Fiachniu is the owner of the bull. In trade for a reward, Daire mac Fiachniu lends the bull to Mebd. When Daire mac Fianchniu heard that Mebd would have stolen the bull anyway, he does not lend the bull to Mebd. Mebd invaded Ulster and wanted to steal Donn. A long war started between Ulster and Connacht. Then Donn and Findbennach came across each other. The bulls fought a day and the up following night. Donn wins and appears on the Muirhevra plains in search of water. On his horns he drags the bones and organs of Findbennach. Exhausted and wounded Donn dies as well.

The fight between the bulls symbolises the fight between Ulster and Connacht. The bulls were magical creatures. Something can be learnt from this story: Many armies fought for months, costing many lives all for a jealous woman. And the cause they fought for, the bull, died as well without any of the parties being able to claim for the bull’s ownership.

Heroes

There are some Irish myths about heroes. The heroes of Ulster were: Ferghus mac Roich, Conall Cernach and the champion among them; Cú Chulainn. These heroes are halfgodly and supernatural. Ferghus is described as a person with insatiable lust. He needed 7 woman to control his lust. Myths describe him as having the strength of 700 man and being as tall as a giant. When he eats, he eats 7 dear, 7cows and drinks 7 barrels. He also has a sword with the length of a rainbow. Ferghus belongs to the court of king Conchobar of Ulster.Ferghus is the foster parent of Cú Chulainn. But after an incident (will be described later) the other heroes move to the court of Mebd.

Cornall Cernach is son of poet Amhairghin en Fionnchaomh. Conall means: as strong as a wolf and Cernach means: victorious. Cornall guards the boundaries of Ireland with his massive strength. On of his stories is about a raid on a fortress. It’s treasure chamber is guarded by a large snake. The snake crawls up in the belt of Conall, but he does not hurt him. This shows affinity between Conall and the snake.

Cú Chulainn is the most important hero. Cú Chulainn means: dog of Cullann. He received this name because he killed the dog of the blacksmith Culann. He regret this and promises to the blacksmith to guard the forge in stead of the dog. Cú Chulainn has a short but glorious life. He is brave, strong and handsome. Is father is the god Lugh of Conchobar. On the same time when Cú Chulainn was born, 2 foals were born. These foals would become Cú Chulainn his horses pulling the chariot. The horses are called: the grey of Macha and the black of Saingliu. The jong warrior is trained by scáthach, a female teacher in martial arts and prophecies, predicting Cú Chulainn’s future. Cú Chulainn goes to war with magical weapons and a magical harness. The charioteer was able to use magic in order to make the chariot invisible. But when Cú Chulainn is filled with anger and rage, he can not be stopped by anyone. Then he is not able to recognize friend or enemy. He becomes a monster and his roars scares everyone. Before Cú Chulainn dies, his horse the grey Macha cries blood when his tack for the last battle was put on. He also meets the ‘wasser aan de voorde’ . This is a bad sign in Irish mythology. Cú Chulainn dies when he is hit by the speer of Vulcanus.

The story of Cú Chulainn is filled with supernatural symbolism. He uses magic in battles, he poses power to control animals, he is associated with holly numbers. He also has three different hair colours, seven fingers and toes and is related to being godly.

Gods

Gods that return frequently in the Irish myths are Macha, the Badbh and the Morrigán. The gods are closely related to animals. Macha is related to the horse. In Cú Chulainn story, on of his horses is called the gery Macha. She is a war goddess. Badbh is the goddess of death and calamity prohecies. She can change in a crow, and when she sits on someone’s shoulder, she predicts death. Morrigán is also a goddess of death and appears as a crow as well. She is also a fertility goddess.

Love Myths

One of the love myths is about Deirdre and Naoise. Deirdre is the daughter of Fedlimid. The druid Cathbadh predicted that Deirdre will become a beautiful lady, but will bring misfortune to the man of Ulster. Conchobars soldiers wanted Deirdre dead because of this. The king decides to raise Deirdre in secret and marry her when she grows up. When Deirdre sees Conchobar skinning a calf, a crow is drinking the calf it’s blood. She then stated that her future husband must have black hair, a white skin and red cheeks. Naoise is the man meeting these requirements. At first he does not want to meet Deirdre, but when they meet they fall in love. They run away to Scotland with Naoises brothers, Ainle and Ardan. Conchobar calls them back and promises that nothing will happen to them. Deirdre does not trust Conchobar. They do return and Eoghan kills Naoise and his brothers. Deirdre is being locked up and has to marry Eoghaen, but she rather kills herself than marrying Eoghan. So she kills herself.

Symbolism in this myth: A to failure doomed triangle of love. Between a girl, a man and a rejected lover. In this myth there is not much told about the three brothers of Naoise. The three brothers could strengthen the triangle symbolic in this story. Three is a magic and holy number.

Myths From Wales

Pwyll is lord of Llys Arbeth and is married with Rhiannon. Pwyll has a son called Pryderi. The story starts when there is a meeting between Pwyll and Arawn, lord of Annwn, the world of the gods of Wales. The meeting takes place when Pwyll is hunting deer and claims the booty of the rival hunter. The dogs of the rival hunter are pearl white with red ears, a sign of being a creature from the world of gods. The rival hunter Arawn. Pwyll can only set this right if Pywell takes Arawn’s place in the other world for one year. There, he also has to battle Arawns’s enemy, Hafgan (God of the underworld). He has to kill Hafgan, but Arawn warns him, he can only strike and hit Hafgan once. Otherwise Hafgan will heal and get stronger. Pwyll succeeds in defeating Hafgan. Arawn and Pwyll become friends.

After Pwyll dies, his son Pryderi becomes friends with Arawn. Arawn gives him a gift, the first pigs of Wales.

This myth shows several subjects that return in other myths: The ability to go to the underworld when alive, and using creatures from the godly world to call for people to complete a task or quest.

The birth of Pryderi is covered with supernatural mysteries.

Teyrnon has a mare and on the night when the mare gives birth to her foal, Teyrnon is standing guard outside. When the foal is born, Teyrnon sees a gigantic claw coming from the window and grasping the foal. Teyrnon chops of the claw and frees the foal. Then he finds a baby wrapped in a silk scarf outside the barn. The scarf means he is of noble blood. He raises this boy. When he turns three, he becomes the owner of the foal. Later, when they discover the child looks like Pwyll, the bring him back to court. They think he is Pryderi the son of Pwyll.

This story contains some symbolic elements: Pryderi disappears from the castle on the night of the first of may and is found then. The foal is also born in the night of the first of may. His first years in live are connected to the foal. It seems Pwyll and Pryderi posses some godly elements.

Manawydan mac Llyr is a brother of Branwen and Brân. He is related to Manannán, son of the seagod Lir. Manawydan has magical powers and is a magician. After Pwyll dies, Manawydan maries the widow Rhiannon. After a party, Manawydan, Rhiannon, Pryderi and his wife Cigfa go to Gorsedd Arberth. There they witness the cast of a spell on Dyfed: Everyone and all the land disappears, only a magical fog is left. The four go to England and become craftsmen. Because they were such a good craftsmen the other craftsmen become angry and jealous. So they return back to Dyfed and go hunting with their dogs. Then a pearl white swine appears (sign of a godly creature). The swine lures the hunters and their dogs to a unknown castle. Pryderi enters the castle, d