Corruption in Nigeria’s Civil Service

Keywords: nigeria corruption government, nigeria civil service, civil service corruption

There is a broad consensus that low government wages in developing countries result in a decline of public sector efficiency and productivity and create both incentives and opportunities for corruption and misuse of public resources. However, most studies also agree that increasing salaries without establishing effective control and monitoring systems as well as enforcement of appropriate sanctions is unlikely to have an impact on corruption. Underpaid staffs develop a wide range of coping strategies to top up incomes, such as teaching, consulting for development agencies, or moonlighting in the private sector. One of the most frequent and effective strategies consists of concentrating on activities that benefit from donor funded per Diems and allowances. In addition to great potential for abuse, such practices have a number of undesirable side effects such as distorting the incentive structure of public servants, encouraging specific forms of corruption and patronage, creating situations favourable to conflicts of interest, competition for time and brain drain. Greater transparency and accountability are needed to address the perverse effects of such practices. Although the debate on these issues is still at an early stage, three major policy directions emerge from the literature, including the need to reform the public sector incentives’ structure, harmonise donors’ systems of allowances and establish more effective control mechanisms.

Chapter One

1.0 Introduction

It is not my father’s work. Work or no work, I must collect my salary.

(Sefiya T. Ajayi, former Nigerian Civil Service Commissioner)

As a major instrument for implementing government policies, the civil service in Nigeria is expected to be professionally competent, loyal and efficient. Nonetheless, it is now denounced, as elsewhere in Africa, for being corrupt, poorly trained and poorly attuned to the needs of the poor. Ironically, the civil service is expected to play the key role in managing and implementing reform programmes in the country. This has led to a number of complex agency problems, yet to be resolved. However, it is broadly acknowledged, and Nigerian experience attests to this, that when the incentive structures in the civil service remain poor, its efficiency as well as ability to effect policy, such as that directed toward reducing poverty, will remain very low.

The Nigeria’s economic and political landscape is pervaded by corruption and abuse of office. The National Planning Commission has noted that: “Systemic corruption and low levels of transparency and accountability have been major sources of development failure. Illegal activities such as the advance fee-fraud (known as 419) and money laundering have torn the fabric of Nigerian society (National Planning Commission, 2005)”.

Evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service

The Nigerian Civil Service evolved from the colonial service which was established by the British authorities as the administrative machinery for governing Nigeria. The amalgamation of the then Northern and Southern protectorates as Nigeria in 1914, under Lord Fredrick Lugard, led to the establishment, for the first time, of what seemed like a unified service. The upper echelon of the colonial service was dominated by Europeans on who were concentrated executive, judicial and legislative powers. Traditional rulers were also co-opted into the colonial power structure.

With the creation of three Regions, North, East and West in 1954, were three Regional Civil Services. A Public Service Commission was also established at the centre and in each of the three regions within the same period. The Federal and Regional Services thereafter nurtured a Career Civil Service within their respective domains. At Independence, the role of the Civil Service shifted from the colonial mould of maintaining law and order to that of facilitating the realization of the nation’s development aspirations. Consequently, the Civil Service became more visible and active both in the formulation and execution of development policies and programmes. With increased oil revenues in the 1970s, and the successful prosecution of the Nigerian Civil War (1967 – 1970), greater commitment to the expansion of the economy and the creation of States to replace the Regions, (12 in 1967, 36 plus FCT since 1996 to date), the Federal Civil Service and its State counterparts witnessed unprecedented growth to match the increased responsibilities of the Federal and State Civil Services. Military incursion into governance and their inexperience in governance especially between 1966 and 1975 allowed Permanent Secretaries to become more visible and powerful. Such visibility, however, created resentment for the Service by subsequent Administrations and the Service suffered for it.

The main function of the Nigerian civil service is to implement government policies. However, its ability to do this has depended crucially on the form of government of the day. As will be discussed in more detail later the traditional role of the civil service in Nigeria has been severely diluted by the politicisation of the civil service in recent years, undermining its credibility and integrity. Presidents or State Governors have tended to listen more to their close political supporters and advisers than to professional civil servants. As a result, sharp friction arises between the advisers (usually political appointees) and the civil servants (career administrators), with the advisers always getting the upper hand. The consequence of this has been the weakening of the civil service, with workers lacking motivation, since professional prospects are bound to diminish in a politicised civil service.

Laconic View of Factors Affecting the Civil Service

In a recent summary of the factors affecting the efficiency of the Nigerian civil service, Ajayi (1998) has noted the following: Over staffing and the closely related poor remuneration of employees in public service are key factors. Secondly, there are the issues of poor assessment of manpower needs and the use of wrong criteria to appraise staff performance. These two have led to poor recruitment procedures, inadequate training and ineffective supervision. There tends to be a lack of qualified technical support staff as opposed to the abundance of general staff. The failure to carry out periodic assessment of manpower needs of the various departments leads not only to uneconomic systems of compensation but also to inadequate job description and poor physical working conditions. There has also been considerable political interference in the process of personnel administration, leading to improper delegation of power, ineffective supervision and corruption. The resulting apathy has in turn led to unauthorized and unreasonable absenteeism, lateness and idleness and, notably, poor workmanship.

For the above problems, relating to what is now generally referred to in the country as the ‘Nigerian factor’, to be addressed, it is imperative that appropriate incentive structures to raise workers’ morale be put in place. Although successive Nigerian governments attempted to address the above problems, it was ultimately not in their interest to tackle the ‘Nigerian factor’. It was the means for their survival.

Civil Service Reforms

To actually keep a tight rein on and expunge relatively, some of the factors affecting the Nigerian Civil Service and consequently corruption, the Nigerian government has embarked on copious and plentiful reforms in the past decades with the aim of enhancing its efficiency and effectiveness. In fact, there have been no less than 10 major commissioned reports on the problems of the civil service in Nigeria.

However, the bulk of these reports focused more on salaries, wages and conditions of service than on the more fundamental structural and attitudinal challenges of the civil service. Two commissions on the civil service, those led by Adebo and Udoji, deserve special mention here because they attempted to take a broader look at impediments to the performance of the civil service. Whilst the Adebo Commission recommended the setting up of a Public Service Review Commission to examine fundamental structural issues, the Udoji Commission focused primarily on the issues of increasing efficiency and effectiveness in the public service. The Udoji Commission recommended, among others, the introduction of an open reporting system for performance evaluation, as well as unified grading and salary structures covering all established posts in the civil services. To enhance policy coherence, the Commission also suggested the creation of a senior management group, comprising administrative and professional cadres.

While the recommendation of the Udoji Commission found easy passage, thanks to the oil bonanza of the 1970s, which raised government income substantially, the period after the boom proved more difficult. High public sector borrowing requirements coupled with a growing external debt had forced the government to embark on structural adjustment programmes, even as the civil service experienced an

Unprecedented rise in indiscipline and the rest of society witnessed a general increase in corruption and other crimes. It is worthy of note that one report or commission’s shortcomings led to the formation of another commission or report to be put in place.

Chapter Two

2.1 Wage Attrition and Political Sponsorship

As stated earlier, the successive civil service reforms in Nigeria had one common objective: to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the civil service. This became necessary, particularly since the mid-1980s, when the civil service was expected to play an important role in the implementation of structural adjustment and other reforms, introduced by the government. Among others, the reforms tried to address economic growth, wage and employment issues, as well as training and human capital development.

Civil service wages and salaries in Nigeria are not only low, but have also declined in real terms in the past two decades. With the exception of the oil boom period of the 1970s, real wages declined on average by 14 per cent during the period 1970-1992 and 34 per cent during the 1980s (Table 2). Much of this decline was on account of the high rates of inflation that the economy was experiencing. Although successive wage and salary reviews have tried to reverse these trends, it has been on the whole difficult to protect wages from serious attrition.

Civil servants are the least paid group of workers in Nigeria. Wages in private manufacturing are, for example, much higher than those in the public sector. Although there are no comparative data by grade level, anecdotal evidence suggests that public sector wages in Nigeria are lower than private sector wages. Clearly, there is a need to make the salary structure of the civil service more competitive in order to correct the image of the civil service. A demoralised and disgruntled worker whose image has been unduly tarnished cannot be an effective instrument of change. Recently, there have been two successive attempts to increase the public sector minimum wage in Nigeria. The first was introduced by the military regime of General Abdulsalami Abubakar in 1998 when the minimum wage was increased dramatically from US$1.20 to US$41.77 per month (using a parallel market rate of 83.8 Naira to a $1).

The second attempt at raising the national minimum wage was undertaken in May 2000 by the new democratically elected administration of President Olusegun Obasanjo. The public sector minimum monthly wage was raised to US$53.91 (at the parallel market rate of N102.02 = $1.00), that is by about 30 per cent in nominal terms, but without compensating sufficiently for the wage erosion of the past decade. Not only did minimum wages continue to be fixed, and thus quickly eroded by inflation, but were sometimes beyond the budgets of state governments. The latter were thus unable to pay workers, at the new minimum wage, resulting in conflict between labour and state governments. What was meant as an incentive to public sector workers, in a bid to enhance productivity, thus became an impediment to the performance of state governments. (Salisu, 2001)

Political sponsorship is an important factor in the incentive environment of the public sector in Nigeria. Civil service appointments often tend to reflect this in larger measure than the skills and professional qualifications of the individuals appointed. This has turned the Nigerian civil service into a highly politicised institution. The changes in Nigerian leadership in the past decades have also led to disruptive shifts within the civil service. Given this erratic nature of the institution over the years, constructing workable incentive structures, based on better training, wages, promotion and increased responsibility, has been next to impossible. The civil service, in spite of possessing a highly trained cadre of officers, has tended to drift along, overwhelmed by the expectations placed on it by the government and the general population, and yet having to meet its own daily survival.

Corruption and Rent-Seeking in Nigeria: An Investigation

Introduction

The simplest definition of corruption is that it is the misapplication of public resources to private ends. In a broader sense, however, corruption can be defined as “an arrangement that involves an exchange between two parties (the demander and the supplier) which (i) has an influence on the allocation of resources either immediately or in the future; and (ii) involves the use or abuse of public or collective responsibility for private ends” (Macrae, 1982, p.678).

Mismanagement and corruption are major problems in Nigeria and many African countries, adversely affecting the effectiveness and efficiency of the civil service. The phenomenon of corruption poses a number of questions, not necessarily confined to the civil service. What are its socioeconomic determinants? Is it a culture-bound phenomenon? Has economics, as a discipline, anything to offer in explaining it?

Corruption in Nigeria can be analysed in terms of the forces of supply and demand. There is usually a supply, as well as demand price for corruption. It is often argued that bureaucratic interference in the market mechanism is one of the principal causes of corruption. What sorts of interventions raise the demand-price of corruption by bureaucrats and under what circumstance will the citizens increase their supply price of corruption? Are the demand and supply forces much more different in Nigeria and other developing countries than in developed countries? Do dictatorships such as those, which, until recently ruled Nigeria, increase the demand price of corruption? Equally interesting questions arise in the context of the impact of corruption. Some amount of corruption, it is said, is necessary for the smooth functioning of governance. It oils the wheels of the administration.

The Financial Times (1993) has argued that Nigerians see nothing wrong with “using public funds to disperse favours to a cousin or to build a well for one’s village, as it is an informal means of redistributing wealth.” Such an act is considered as a lubricant or a positive sum game of “give and take” which is widely practised in employment offers, award of contracts, import licences and even in obtaining admission to institutions of higher education. The visible riches of the corrupt and the greedy spur the poor to imitate their life styles and modes of wealth acquisition.

Causes of Corruption and Rent-Seeking: An Overview

The literature on rent-seeking and directly unproductive profit-seeking economic activities provides some insight into the questions raised above. Policy-induced sources of corruption arise when pervasive regulations exist and government officials have discretion in applying them. Private parties may be willing to pay bribes to government officials in order to obtain some of the rents generated by the regulations. As Tanzi (1994) argues, the problem becomes worse when regulations lack simplicity and transparency. The following are some of the government-induced sources of corruption that have been identified in the literature (see Mauro 1995, 1997): trade restrictions; government subsidies; multiple exchange rate practices and foreign exchange allocation; and low wages in the civil service relative to private sector wages or per capita GDP. Table 3 shows these and other determinants of corruption, many of which fit Nigeria and many other African countries.

Low Salaries and Corruption

There is a growing consensus that low government wages combined with weak monitoring systems are breeding grounds for corruption and misuse of public resources. In the past two decades, public service wages have been declining at rapid pace in Nigeria as a consequence of fiscal adjustment policies in stabilisation programmes. Evidence further indicates a common trend of growing wage differentials between the public and the private sector over substantial periods of time.

As underpaid civil servants are forced to develop individual coping strategies to compensate for their declining purchasing power, it is generally agreed that low wages provides incentives for corruption. For example, a 2007 experimental analysis of the cause of corruption looking at variables such as the ease of hiding corrupt gains, officials’ wages and selection methods for law enforcement officers suggests that increasing government wages and increasing the difficulty to hide corrupt gains are both likely to reduce corruption.

However, a number of other empirical studies have also challenged this assumption and evidence remains largely inconclusive on the magnitude of the impact that government wage policies may have on corruption. For example, an often cited study by Rauch and Evan in 2000 looking at wage measures of higher officials compared to those of private sector managers with similar training and responsibilities for 35 developing countries reports insignificant effects of wages on corruption, as measured by perceptions of corruption in government data from the International Country Risk Guide.

A further study by Van Rijckeghem and Weder based on pay data for 28 countries suggests that while the empirical evidence points to a negative relationship between corruption and wages across developing countries, relative pay does not seem to have significant effect on corruption in “within country” regressions, suggesting that pay may not have a contemporaneous effect on corruption and that changes in salary scales may not be systematically associated with changes in corruption.

A more recent 2009 study looked at incentives of state actors in charge of implementing policies – as opposed to those of actors taking policy decisions – and analysed an original data set from a survey answered by 520 experts from 52 countries. The findings suggest that, while bureaucratic factors such as meritocratic recruitment tend to reduce corruption, other allegedly relevant features such as public employees’ competitive salaries, career stability or internal promotions do not appear to have a significant impact.

Other studies looking at pay levels in relations to per capita income find contradictory results in terms of their correlation to corruption levels. A study by Swamy et al finds no significant relation between pay and corruption, while a study by La Porta et al even suggests more severe corruption where the pay is higher. (The World Bank’s thematic page on ineffective monetary incentives). Some other studies, not only challenge the effectiveness of increasing wages as an anticorruption measure, but also conclude that anticorruption policies designed to increase wages and net income of potentially corrupt agents may be both ineffective and encourage corruption.

However, empirical evidence may be inconclusive on the link between wages and corruption because of methodological challenges involved in cross country analysis of pay and corruption. There are general measurement problems and limitations in both corruption and pay data, as well as challenges in identifying appropriate benchmarks for comparisons.

A paper looking at the link between wage cuts and budget deficits confirms that in many countries where there is evidence of important salary differentials between the private and public sectors, wage reductions have coincide with a decline in the efficiency of the public sector and the quality of public output. In addition, underpaid staff is more likely to spend a considerable amount of office time on rent seeking activities, further reducing the overall public service productivity. The combination of these factors is creating working conditions that are conducive to various forms of bureaucratic corruption and misappropriation of public resources.

However, according to the World Bank, while brain drain of skilled and experienced civil servants to the private sector has occurred to a certain extent, many civil servants have preferred to stay in the public sector, especially in countries with high unemployment rates, because of other in-kind, monetary or more intangible incentives such as health insurance, housing, job security, social privileges, prestige of the position, trips abroad, training opportunities, etc. It is therefore important to consider the full range of incentives embedded within a specific pay system to assess its adequacy and potential to deter corruption. Similarly, studies looking at other forms of misuse of public resources such as absenteeism in health and education sectors also challenge the importance of higher pay as an incentive to reduce absenteeism among public servants, arguing that other factors also play an important role in deterring corruption. Factors that seemed more important determinants of absenteeism included more frequent inspections; improved working environment and conditions and measures to increase accessibility such as nearby housing or good transportation.

Another argument found in the literature is that there is a greater public tolerance for corrupt practices when civil servants’ incomes are insufficient for living and their relative level are low or perceived as unfair in comparison to private sector salaries. Informal payments are perceived as a subsistence strategy that compensate for inequitable working conditions and economic hardships make it less reprehensible to demand or accept bribes for poorly paid staff as a survival coping strategy. Theoretically, higher salaries make corruption potentially more costly, as corrupt behaviours increase the risks of losing a highly rewarding job instead of a low paying one. In other words, highly paid officials have in principle less incentive to indulge in corruption and have more to lose if they are caught. However, there is a growing consensus that this argument does not directly predict the impact of increasing salary rates on reducing corruption, as other variables are important to consider, such as risks of detection, severity of sanctions and level of enforcement. In countries with weak monitoring systems, risks of detection and punishment are minimal. Under such circumstances, the prospect of losing a highly paid job is unlikely to have a deterrent impact on corruption.

An often cited study on the role of wages and auditing during a corruption crackdown in Buenos Aires comes to a similar conclusion. Looking at the effect of bureaucratic wages on corruption and procurement efficiency, the study concludes that there is a negative and well defined effect of wages on both corruption and procurement efficiency when there is a positive perceived probability of detection and punishment, suggesting that audit intensity is crucial for the effectiveness of anti-corruption wage policies.

Wage Supplementation Practices and Corruption

2.4.1 Individual Coping Strategies

In a generalised context of under resourced public services across the country, many civil servants resort to individual coping strategies to top up their salary and bring their income closer to their expectations. A 2002 paper looking at individual top up strategies of health personnel reports that in some studies, such strategies more than doubled the median income of health managers, increasing it from 20% to 42 % of that of an individual in full time private practice.

Top up strategies include demanding bribes or informal payments for services that are supposed to be free of charge or misusing public resources for private gains. But not all coping strategies are predatory in nature. Some public officials may turn to teaching, consulting for development agencies or “moonlighting” in private practices, while other prefer to concentrate their activities on interventions – especially capacity building projects – that benefit from donor funded per diems and allowances.

Practices of Government and Development Partners

Per diems and daily allowance provided by development partners constitute one of the most popular coping strategies for compensating for low public sector wages in the developing world. Per Diems refer to daily payments made by organisations to cover their employees’ accommodation, travel, food and other expenses incurred by work related activities. It is a common practice in donor funded projects to pay local officials generous per diems in the form of “daily subsistence”, “out-of station” or “sitting” allowances, for attending meetings, workshops and conferences. Often based on government regulation, the daily rates may vary according to the position of the participant and the location of the event.

For underpaid qualified staff, consulting with international organisations bring in considerable amount of income, often out of proportion to official public service salaries, and offers unique career development opportunities and perspectives, which can provide further incentives to stay in the public service. As a result, such practices may have a positive impact on under resourced public services in developing countries, by mobilising additional resources to retain qualified staff and support the realisation of their professional goals. But there is also a need to recognise both the dimension of the phenomenon and the potential side effects of such practices on the public sector’s workforce of most developing countries.

Such practices also provide many opportunities for fraud and abuse. Entire workshops can be faked, attendance lists can be falsified, fake receipts can be submitted, records can be falsified to inflate the volume of entitlements, allowances and per diems can be paid at a rate below what is reported and budgeted, etc. The generous donors’ per diem and allowance regime makes donor funded projects very attractive for civil servants. For example, besides making meetings unnecessarily expensive, the practice of “sitting allowances” creates powerful incentives for higher ranking officials to hijack participation in training events at the expenses of lower level civil servants who would benefit more from the interventions and miss important opportunities to develop their skills and improve their performance. In some cases, high level officials do not even attend the full training sessions, claim their per diem, travel reimbursement or sitting allowance and move to the next event.

Chapter Three

Efficiency, Accountability and Reform Implementation

Most independent observers agree that public sector organizations in poor African countries perform badly, even considering the difficult circumstances they operate in. To varying degrees they suffer from a number of well-known bureau pathologies. Inefficiency, centralization, fragmentation, poor leadership, lack of capacity, patrimonialism, rent seeking, corruption, and poor accountability and legitimacy. The need to improve efficiency and accountability is therefore obvious (Ayoade, 1988:107.111; Kiggundu, 1998; Mkandawire and Soludo, 1999:135; Mukandala, 1992; Mutahaba et al., 1993; Olowu, 1999). Most reforms in developing countries actually focus on these two issues (Morgan, 1996:227).

The foregoing analysis suggests that in spite of all the civil service reforms in Nigeria, the civil service has so far failed to live up to expectations. Corruption remains endemic as well as extremely low levels of efficiency. However, the problems of the civil service are more to blame on the distorted incentive structure than on the civil servants themselves. Nigeria’s current civilian administration must take issue with corruption, using a broad-based approach mandated by its democratic credentials. The anticorruption bill recently signed by the President marks a step in the right direction. However, since similar legislation was attempted with little success in the past, appropriate incentive structures need to accompany the current legislation, if current efforts at fighting corruption are to have meaningful results.

The approach should have economic and political dimensions. Politically, the leadership must evolve a culture of honesty based on transparency and credibility. It needs to lead by example, showing zero tolerance on corrupt behaviour, even among the highest echelons of government. The legal and institutional framework for dealing with corrupt practices must be credible and independent of political control in order to ensure it a level of credibility.

On the economic side, the government should scale down regulations on economic activities, as well as other policies, which contribute to the demand and supply of corrupt activities. On the supply side, this can be done by improving public sector wages towards market-based levels, thereby lowering the premium on errant behaviour and making dismissal from the civil service both a painful and credible threat. At the same time public sector efficiency would be enhanced. Attractive wages in the public sector demand urgent attention as the perceived high correlation between corruption and inefficiency of public servants may retard economic growth.

A U4 Brief drawing lessons on wages and corruption from public hospitals notes that wages are not the only determinant of corruption and other factors need to be taken into account, including the expected gain from corruption, the risk of losing the job, the probability of being detected, and the magnitude of the penalty if being caught. The paper concludes that the absence of effective monitoring undercuts any potential effect that wages would have on corruption and suggests that higher wages anti-corruption policies need to be accompanied by regular auditing, appropriate sanctions and effective prosecution measures.

Other issues to consider at policy level relates to determining the optimal scale of salary rises and how to finance them. Budget constraints do not allow raising salaries to competitive levels with the private sector or international organisations and it is unlikely that salary measures can be implemented through domestic budget resources only. An IMF working paper established, in 1997, that quasi-eradication of corruption would require a relative wage of 3 to 7 times the manufacturing wages and it is generally estimated that in low income countries like Nigeria, salaries would have to be multiplied by at least a factor of five to bring them closer to the private sector.

While it is not a realistic option for under resourced and overstaffed civil services to close the salary gap between the private and public sectors, there is a need to revisit the public sector’s incentive systems in Nigeria retain the right staff at the right positions. Financial incentives are one dimension of the issue, as subsistence levels need to be guaranteed as a necessary condition to retain qualified staff whose contribution is essential to development. But incentives other than that of financial nature can also be introduced, as other more intangible factors may also play an important role in making the public sector attractive to qualified staff, such as social responsibility, the prestige of the position, professional satisfaction, professional development and career opportunities, access to adequate working conditions, equipment, technologies, etc.

3.1 Reforming the Regime of Allowances

Governments also to address the current regime of allowances to ensure that they do not provide the wrong incentives, inducing and rewarding practices and behaviour that are not always oriented towards the provision of better quality services.

3.2 Dealing with Staff Coping Strategies

Prohibiting underpaid staff from complementing their income does not seem to be a realistic option either in a context of blatantly insufficient salary scales. But introducing more transparency into these practices may help limit risks of conflict of interest or competition for time.

3.3 Effective Monitoring and Control

Raising salaries, revisiting the incentive system and rationalising the per diem regime in a context of weak monitoring are unlikely to bring any positive change if impunity undermines the system of reward and penalties in place. In addition to providing a rational system of incentives that truly support development priorities, effective monitoring and control mechanisms need to be established to limit opportunities for fraud and abuse of the monetary incentive regime.

3.4 Training and Employment Opportunities

While there are often no formal policies in place, some donors have started to address issues of brain drain in the conditions their associate with the training or employment opportunities they provide. The World Bank for example increasingly ties training opportunities offered abroad to a certain number of years of service in the country or ask beneficiaries to reimburse the costs of training. To limit brain drain, NORAD, GTZ or WHO implement human resource recruitment policies of task specific and short term consultancies with a commitment of national institutions to retain such staff. As jobs in international agencies are likely to be all the more attractive if civil servants can get leave of absence from a civil service position and maintain their security of employment, others recommend to require civil servants to resign from their civil service position to take another job with the view to creating a level playing field.

3.5 Harmonizing Per Diem Donors

Harmonising government and donors monetary incentives regimes is also a prerequisite to “deescalate” the per diem race and the generalised practice of bidding up allowances to get the commitment of key decision makers to specific development projects and programs. In terms of per diem regimes for capacity building activities, the Cambodia report provides the most specific recommendations to donors. The report concludes that donors should work with local governments to establish a harmonised, transparent and accountable system for the payment of monetary incentives that include salary supplement. In doing so, consideration should be given to:

Limiting the payment of per diems to cover actual expenses, which could be dispensed at standardised rates;

Discontinuing the payment of fictitious per diems and of attendance allowances at seminars, workshops and training session, to ensure that participants attending such activities are genuinely interested in participating and do not only do so to obtain the monetary incentives;

Developing a standardised scale for the payment of salary supplements and or a monetary incentive under another nomenclature;

Requiring donors to provide the names of the recipient of salary supplements and or monetary incentives to a central register which would be accessible both to government and donors. This would ensure the necessary transparency and make it possible to verify that no recipient received more than one supplement;

When a policy has been agreed, all development partners should be required to sign and enforce this agreement.

Conclusion

Successive governments in Nigeria have introduced various reform measures with the main aim of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service. Unfortunately, the Nigerian civil service has remained weak, inefficient and incapable

of reforming itself and the rest of the economy. A plausible explanation for all this relates to the endemic nature of corruption and rent-seeking opportunities, inappropriate incentive structures, and lack of political will to implement ‘good’ reform measures. There are as yet no operational guidelines for assessing the efficiency of the civil service. Hiring and firing of civil servants are often based on personal acquaintances or vendetta rather than on productivity related indicators. Specific targets must be set to which the civil service can strive. An efficiency-based incentive scheme that links reward to performance may provide strong motivation. Political interference, which has seriously undermined the credibility and confidence of the civil service in the design and implementation of government policy, should be minimised.

This assignment paper has also examined the causes of corruption in Nigeria and its impact on productivity and civil service efficiency. A number of reform measures to fight corruption were highlighted. These include institutional and societal reform measures aimed at reducing the role of government in economic activities, strengthening transparency, improving incentives in the civil service and dramatic change in attitudes toward the political process; not leaving the harmonization of government and donor organization incentive practices as also a way-forward.