Definitions And Concepts Heritage Buildings Environmental Sciences Essay

This Chapter provides some definitions and concepts concerning the heritage building conservation. It outlines previous researches related to objectives of this research. In addition, the Chapter summarises past researches conducted on the heritage buildings of the old city of Ghadames, world heritage site, Libya. Theory of conservation, laws and international legislations, and international organisations that have an interest with heritage buildings are also discussed in this Chapter.

2.2 Definitions and Concepts

2.2.1 Heritage Buildings

Heritage buildings are defined as those which are old and significant either in terms of architecture or of history (Chien, 1992). Heritage buildings are also defined as existing buildings with significant cultural value to society (CIB Commission, 2010). Feilden, (1994) defines heritage building in his book, Conservation of historic buildings, that building which gives us a feeling of admiration and make us need to know more about the people who lived in this building and their culture as well as knowing it’s beautiful, historic, archaeological, economic, social, and political value.

At the beginning of last century and after signing the Venice charter in 1964 for architectural conservation, the heritage building concept has been extended to include all buildings that have architectural value and cultural. The architectural conservation concept has also been extended. It has not been limited on archaeological landmarks and religious and palaces as was in the past; but according to Itma (2007), the buildings that should be conserved have been divided into two main types:

1. Monuments: They are important buildings correlated with a collective humanitarian value on international, regional, or denominational religious level, and to conserve them, their original case must be retained without any change, this can be applied only to archaeology and some distinctive architectural buildings such as the Dome of the Rock – Jerusalem (Kobbat Assakhra- Kodos) in Palestine and Colosseum in Rome, Italy.

2. Documentary buildings: They are considered as documentation for historic phases of a heritage area. In general they have less historic value than the previous buildings due to their availability in several areas around the world. They usually are found in heritage centres for old cities and towns.

According to UNESCO World Heritage Website, (30 December 2012), UNESCO’s Convention related to the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) has defined and classified cultural heritage as follows:

Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and combinations of features, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;

Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their place in the landscape, are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science;

Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view.

Deciding how old a building must be in order to be called “heritage” is difficult. In some places, 100 years old is heritage, while in other places, maybe 50 years old is enough. However, based on the Italian Law, Itma (2007) classified buildings as heritage buildings if their age is more than 50 years.

2.2.2 Approach of Architectural Conservation

Strategies for action are being identified in present time in the field of preservation and restoration for heritage buildings according to international standards created by UNESCO, whether through International Conventions issued by International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) or through versions of International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) and conventions issued by World Heritage Centre (WHC), where standard definitions for methods of cultural properties preservation and standards have been issued. Generally, there are seven (7) approaches in a conservation program, used individually or a combination, depend on the circumstances and objectives of a conservation project. In the following subsections, some approaches of a conservation program are explored.

2.2.2.1 Conservation

Heritage building conservation can be described by many words. According to Norlizaiha Harun (2011), conservation is a technical activity towards heritage buildings. It includes physical action to preserve the fabric and construction material of the heritage buildings. It is a process to prevent decay and the action is aiming to prolong the life of the buildings. An article, Historic preservation projects can be green, by Wishkoski (2006), defines conservation as a process that preserves, protects and maintains during physical change. The International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites in its Venice Charter (1964) describes the process of conserving a historical monument as: “it implies preserving a setting which is not out of scale. Wherever the traditional setting exists, it must be kept. No new construction, demolition or modification which would alter the relations of mass and colour must be allowed.” Burra Charter Article 1.4, (1990), defines conservation as all the processes of looking after a place so as to retain its cultural significance.

2.2.2.2 Preservation

Preservation is a process aiming to stop the deterioration, decay or dilapidation state. It provides structural safety and should be carried out only in such a way that evidence of the construction or use of the fabric would not be obscured (Norlizaiha Harun, 2011). According to Civic Amenities Act, (1967) as quoted by Farayune Hajjar (2008), preservation is to protect individual buildings, structures and other artefacts that were preserved because of their relation to the great figures from the nation’s heritage. Moreover, it was concerned with groups of historic buildings, townscape, and the spaces between buildings. Preservation is also concerned with limiting change, and the conservation is about the inevitability of change and the management of that change.

2.2.2.3 Restoration

The Burra Charter (1999) as referred in Article 1.7, defines the restoration approach as returning the existing fabric of a place to a known earlier state by removing accretions or by reassembling existing components without the introduction of new material. The Venice Charter (1964) as referred in Article 9, defines the process of restoration as a highly specialised operation that aims to preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic value of the monument with the main focus on respect for original materials and authentic documents. Accordingly, Restoration is the process of returning a building to its original condition at a specific time period. It should work from actual evidence, as stated in the secretary of interior’s guidelines (See Appendix C Standard no. 6) that repair or replacement of missing architectural features should be based on accurate duplications of features, substantiated by historic, physical, or pictorial evidence rather than on conjectural designs or the availability of different architectural elements from other buildings or structure. Therefore, the restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an archaeological and historical study of the monument (Venice Charter, 1964).

2.2.2.4 Reconstruction

Reconstruction Approach means the building of a historic structure using replicated design and/or materials. This approach is taken when a historic structure no longer exists but needs to be physically in place for contextual reasons. Reconstruction means also returning a place to a known earlier state and is distinguished from restoration by the introduction of new material into the fabric (Burra Charter, Article1.8, 1999). Additionally, according to Appleton Charter, (1983) reconstruction means recreation of vanished or irreversibly deteriorated resources.

2.2.2.5 Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation in general means that there is a good previous case of an object, then this case has deteriorated due to certain reasons or by the passage of the time. Therefore, this object has become unfit for the modern era and needs to carry out some modifications. These modifications make this object able to continue and perform its functions again with retaining its original value. In particular, architectural rehabilitation means a series of stages of rebuilding a building to its original case to perform its old functions or a suitable new function. In other words, it means repairing and developing the building by preserving its parts and components that possess historical, architectural and cultural values during the eras in which the building has passed since its construction. This means finding a new function for the building that makes the building useful and usable, and at the same time able to continue to insure the existence of people who perform maintenance works (Itma, 2007). According to Tyler, (1994), rehabilitation describes a suitable approach when existing historic features are damaged or deteriorated but modifications can be made to update portions of the structure, even rehabilitating the building for a new purpose. When rehabilitation is chosen as the appropriate intervention technique, alterations or additions may be made, but they should not be confused with original historic elements.

2.2.2.6 Maintenance

Maintenance means the continuous protective care of the fabric and setting of a place, and is to be distinguished from repair. The repair involves restoration or reconstruction (Burra Charter, Article 1.5, 1990). Maintenance can also be defined as some work focuses on retaining a property in good working condition by repairing features as soon as deterioration becomes apparent, using procedures that preserve the original character and finish of the features. In some cases, preventive maintenance is carried out before noticeable deterioration. Maintaining properties in good condition often assures that more aggressive (and expensive) measures of rehabilitation, restoration, or reconstruction are not needed at some future date (Denver Landmark Preservation Commission & Planning and Development Office, 1995).

2.2.2.7 Renovation

Renovation is refurbishing and/or adding to the appearance of an original building or elements of a building in an attempt to “renew” its appearance in keeping with contemporary tastes and perceptions of conservation (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 2008). Renovation means also to improve by repair, to revive, and thereby enhance the usefulness and appearance of the building. The basic character and significant features are respected and preserved, but some alterations may also take place. Alterations that are made are generally reversible, should future owners wish to restore the building to its original design. The words rehabilitation and renovation are often used interchangeably (Denver Landmark Preservation Commission & Planning and Development Office, 1995).

2.2.3 Conservation Guidelines

The design guidelines are prepared to assist property owners, developers, architects, and designers of projects. In other words, they are written to be used by the city planners, Landmarks Commission, architects and developers, and especially the property owners, tenants, and construction trades who may be doing work on an older or heritage building in a city (Williams & Elmer, 2010). They offer suggestions for conservation of heritage buildings and compatible new design to maintain buildings historic identity. According to Gioulis (1997), these guidelines are intended to:

Increase public awareness of the value of historic architecture and the importance of design issues.

Help reinforce the character of heritage buildings and protect their overall appearance.

Preserve the integrity of designated heritage areas.

Assist property owners and architects in making basic design decisions.

Improve the quality of development.

Protect the value of public and private investment.

2.3 Purpose of the Design Guidelines Organisation

The guidelines are to assist in making improvements to the exterior of eligible residential, commercial, industrial, institutional and agricultural heritage properties, and are not to be interpreted as bylaw requirements. According to Heritage Restoration Grant Program (2009), guidelines for building conservation have two objectives:

Ensuring the long-term stability of the building, in terms of its economic viability, structural improvements and compliance with building codes, when applicable.

Restoration and retention of the architectural features which caused the building to be originally approved for assistance.

The guidelines help protect the overall character of the heritage buildings by emphasizing preservation of architectural styles, building character, original features and streetscape elements that make up the community’s unique collection of heritage buildings. They provide background information and recommendations to help guide the appropriate conservation work and alterations to existing buildings. For additions, new construction and site work, they emphasize the compatibility of new buildings or features with existing or established historic character (Williams & Elmer, 2010).

2.4 Assessment of the Current Level of Heritage Conservation and Building Defects

Some previous studies reviewed the conservation activities and assessed the existing conditions of heritage buildings with taking into consideration, the conditions of building defects and conservation approach used for these buildings. For example, in Malaysia S. Johar et al (2009) reviewed the conservation activities on a traditional old mosque in Malaysia. They studied the concept and importance of conservation in general, the conservation activities on heritage buildings and mosque in Malaysia, and the approaches used for conserving to preserve the Muslim’s house of worship. They found that the four key conservation principles namely minimal intervention, conducting scientific research and laboratories testing, documentation of conservation work and applying effective methods and techniques for conservation. Meanwhile for conservation program, the seven approaches are preservation, reproduction, restoration, maintenance, redevelopment, rehabilitation and consolidation. Several approaches are normally adopted for one building conservation project. What’s most important is the justification in adopting the approaches so that it complies with one of the key conservation principle, namely minimal intervention.

Other research also in Malaysia by A Ghafar Ahmad et al. (2008) highlighted the existing conditions of heritage buildings in Malaysia with the main focus on the conditions of building defects and conservation approach to these buildings. The study conducted a pilot survey on several heritage towns and cities based on the existing heritage trail in Malaysia. The broad objective of this pilot survey was to examine the level of building defects and the location of building defects that normally occur in various types of historical buildings in Malaysia. At the same time, it also looked into the conservation approaches that has been done to these heritage buildings either the method are acceptable according to the basic principles and philosophy of building conservation. The study found that Malaysia faces several problems in dealing with the issues of heritage buildings.

In addition, Hashimah Ismail & Shuhana Shamsuddin (2005) highlighted the qualities that support the old shophouses as part of Malaysian heritage. They examined these qualities from two broad aspects, namely contribution to urban form and aesthetic aspects. They sought to highlight the strength of the old shophouses and the impending factors that threaten the continuous presence of these heritages building Malaysian town. The findings indicate that the practice of conserving the old shophouses is still not effective. A more effective measure in preserving the old shop houses needs to be undertaken.

A research by Alattar, (2010), investigated a number of issues involved in the conservation process of the urban heritage of central Baghdad, which encompasses a unique collection of urban forms that belong to different phases of Baghdad’s history. Her study of the conservation efforts in this area revealed the appreciation of the built heritage and the will to maintain them. On the other hand, it disclosed the uncertainty of the strategies and tools utilised in the conservation process.

Itma (2007) presented the situations of conservation projects in Palestine especially in the city of Nablus, by shedding light on the local institutions of labour in the domain of architectural conservation, and their important projects since the agreement of Oslo until 2007. He proved that there was not a complete or an extensive project of conservation in the old city of Nablus, during the mentioned period, but only small projects of maintaining and optimizing the old destroyed buildings. In addition, there was a very limited number of conservation projects conducted on some important heritage buildings in the old city of Nablus, Palestine.

Mokadi (2008) highlighted the architectural and physical fabric of the throne villages in Palestine. The study attempted to study the historical centre of Deir Estia as a case study for the throne villages. That is to say, the study attempted to highlight the aspects of shortage and suffering, recent attempts of development, focusing on the available factors that can support establishing a tourism track which can cooperate in keeping the centre and enhancing the economic level, and to achieve building a strategy of developing that area. The study found that the throne is now facing rapid change of its physical fabric as a result of political, economic, social, and planning factors, in addition to the shortage of awareness level for the Palestinian character and values.

Swilem (2008) aimed at keeping on the sustainability of the popular markets and conserve them as an economical cultural and tourist aspect. Her research attempted also to find solutions to the current market problems as well as to motivate investment in the popular markets through creating job opportunities and investment opportunities. She found that the traditional streets suffer from some problems. To overcome on these problems, the researcher suggested some strategies and policies to achieve sustainable development for the traditional streets.

2.5 Conservation Guidelines of Heritage Buildings

Conservation guidelines for developing and utilizing heritage building must be created to protect these buildings from random works that influencing the historic value of a heritage building. Preparation of the conservation guidelines helps guide the development of heritage area as well as the development of heritage buildings and lots located within a heritage area. At the same time, these guidelines guide the conservation of this underutilized area into one of vibrant urban destinations. The guidelines direct development of the site; chiefly its public places, individual buildings and lots. This controls the utilization of heritage and new buildings for uses that will conserve as well as indirectly preserve the area and its heritage buildings.

Several previous studies established conservation guidelines of heritage buildings. Alattar, (2010), explored the references for heritage understanding other than the physical structure, including culture, history, and traditions. The researcher tried to promote the awareness of all heritage aspects, and developed guidelines for a strategy that considers all active elements of the historical experience and provided a sustainable framework for future conservation plans for heritage buildings in Baghdad.

Farayune (2008) provided the design guidelines of conservation Jakarta Kota as a heritage area, which improves and enhances the physical element and environment facilities. It is also in the revival Jakarta heritage area to become attractive place and tourism place in Jakarta. The design guidelines were based on the survey and analysis of the study area. The study found that conservation of Jakarta Kota was not only about conservation and preservation of the heritage building, but also about some aspects that need to be put on focus such as social, economic, culture, people activities and environmental facilities. These things can encourage the Jakarta Kota Area to be liveable.

Abu-Hantash N. A. (2007) investigated the issue of adaptation of traditional residential buildings to contemporary needs. Her study was an attempt towards the development of a general policy for conservation and adaptation of traditional residential buildings in the heritage centre of Palestinian cities. The study demonstrated the high potentiality of the traditional house to satisfy the contemporary needs of its inhabitants. In addition, the research revealed that the modification needed varies from one building to another and are to be determined according to the building value and the level of intervention it allows. The research outlined a general policy and guidelines for housing conservation that could be applied to other heritage cities in Palestinian. In addition, Rabba I. H. (2004) examined the present reality of Dhahrieh old town by documenting its heritage monument and diagnosed the old town’s problems and difficulties, in order to identify policies to safeguard its historical heritage. He concluded a set of policies, guidelines and suggestions to conserve the old town of Dhahrieh, Palestine.

2.6 Benefits of Conservation of Heritage Buildings

Conservation of heritage buildings can generate social, economic and environmental benefits that reach far beyond the virtues of conserving a legacy for future generations. Investment in heritage properties conservation can, for instance, boost property values and tax revenues, create local jobs and skills, attract new businesses, and promote tourism (Municipal Heritage Partnership Program, 2012). The incorporation of many abandoned heritage buildings in the redevelopment process presents numerous advantages. The benefits of conservation of heritage buildings can be classified under three main topics: environmental, social, and economic (Stas, 2007).

2.6.1 Economic Benefits

Conservation of heritage buildings generates economical benefits (economical returns). It represents a good way for national economic development across tourism (Itma, 2007). Conservation of a heritage building is more economic than its demolition or its rebuilding. Several economic impact studies discussed if heritage conservation yields significant benefits to the economy. In other words, these studies ask the question, “Is heritage conservation considered as an economic development tool?” A significant number of these studies have been undertaken across the U.S., and the answer to this question is a resounding “yes”-heritage conservation yields significant benefits to the economy. Rypkema (1991) compared the relative costs of building conservation versus new construction, and found that conservation makes more economic sense than new construction. Wolf et al (1999) reached the same conclusion documented by Rypkema (1991), in many cases; it is more efficient and profitable to conserve heritage buildings than construct a new building.

2.6.2 Environmental Benefits

Conservation of heritage buildings generates very important benefits to the environment. A number of studies around the world have addressed this subject. Review of the literature revealed three main environmental benefits gained by conservation including: Reduction of hazardous materials; Preserving of the embodied energy; and Preserving of the Energy.

2.6.2.1 Reduction of Hazardous Materials

Heritage buildings are more suitable for the environment because they have been built by using traditional materials such as mud, lime and stone. Traditional materials are natural materials. Therefore, they do not cause any pollution of the environment and also its preparations do not affect the environment. Modern building materials are generally reliant on large scale industrial processes that can emit very substantial levels of “greenhouse gases”, can require significant energy consumption and are often transported hundreds if not thousands of miles. For example the manufacture of cement alone accounts for 3% of “greenhouse gases” produced worldwide and the manufacture of PVC (Poly vinyl chloride) demands a lengthy process that requires a significant consumption of energy (Donough Cahill, 2004). A study carried out by De Sousa (2001), in the greater Toronto area, Canada found that the reduction of health risks posed by hazardous is the most important environmental benefits associated with Brownfield development. Moreover, vacant properties often contain an array of conditions such as illegal dumping, leaking, and fire hazards that pose serious threats to public health and the environment (Schilling, 2002).

2.6.2.2 Preserving of the Embodied Energy

The retention of the original building’s “embodied energy” is one of the main environmental benefits of reusing heritage buildings. Rypkema (2005) defined the term “embodied energy” as “the total expenditure of energy involved in the creation of the building and its constituent materials”. The embodied energy can be also defined as “the embodied energy is the quantity of energy required by all activities associated with a production process, including the relative proportions consumed in all activities upstream to the acquisition of natural resources and the share of energy used in making equipment and other supporting functions, i.e. Direct plus indirect energy” (Treloar, 1997). Wishkoski (2006) gives an example: a heritage building with approximately 308,000 exterior bricks, each with an embodied energy value of 14,300 Thermal Units (BTU), represents 4.4 million BTUs of energy expended in the original construction of the building, or 1.3 million kilowatt hours of electricity.

Planners, architects, investors, and public officials must take into consideration the energy used in the production and assembly of materials needed for new buildings, from their origin to their end of life and subsequent reuse. Conservation causes much less destruction of the natural resources than new construction. Statistics reveal that building construction consumes 40 percent of the raw materials entering the global economy every year (Bahl, 2005). Interestingly, about 85 percent of the total embodied energy in materials is used in their production and transportation (Bahl, 2005).

In Australia, studies showed new buildings have much higher energy costs than buildings that are conserved. In 2001, new buildings accounted for 25 percent of wood harvest, 16 percent of fresh water supplied, 44 % of landfill, and 45 % of carbon dioxide production and up to half of the total greenhouse emissions from industrialized countries (Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage, 2004).

Besides that, demolition of buildings causes environmental loads. Whereby, the large volumes of construction waste strain landfill capacities and leads to environmental concerns. Therefore, conservation of the heritage buildings is the best resolution for this issue. Rypkema (2005) argues, the process of demolishing a historic building has a significant impact on the environment. When a building is being demolished, first, tens of thousands of dollars of embodied energy are being thrown away. Second, it is being replaced with materials vastly more consumptive of energy. Further, modern construction methods are incredibly wasteful of resources. Studies show that Up to 25 percent of the total waste generated in the United States and other countries is directly attributed to building, construction, and demolition activities (Bahl, 2005). These waste products can be environmentally hazardous and polluting, both as solids and in the atmosphere. The waster also stresses the capacity of landfill sites.

2.6.2.3 Preserving of the Energy.

Preserving of energy is a great advantage that can be gained from conservation of heritage buildings. The old construction methods were used with taking into consideration to keep the weather out without consuming energy, namely, keeping the heritage building cooling in summer and heating in winter. When a heritage building is preserved or restored, those old cultural methods are preserved and brought back to active duty. Very likely, the old building was strategically placed to get the best orientation to the sun to make the most use of the solar energy, and the interior space and its openings were efficiently organized to keep the air circulating and cool down the space without using any sort of air conditioning and electricity. Preserving a heritage building helps avoid the consumption of additional energy by getting advantage of the old construction methods designed to cool and heat the space and keep the weather out without energy consumption (Stas, 2007).

2.6.3 Social Benefits

Conservation of heritage buildings entails significant social benefits. Those benefits can be categorized under (1) Job creation, (2) Crime reduction, and (3) The sense of place factor (Stas, 2007).

2.6.3.1 Job Creation

One of the social benefits for conservation of heritage building is job creation. According to Rypkema (1999), investing in vacant properties is an important tool that creates new job opportunities in communities and urban centres. Further, the labour intensity of building conservation generally means that there is a greater local economic impact in jobs and income than with the same amount spent on new construction.

2.6.3.2 Crime Reduction

Abandoned heritage buildings can quickly become havens for vandals, homeless, arsonists, and drug dealers, and as a result drive down property values, taxes, and services, and discourage investment in a community. Schilling (2002) describes the effect of abandoned buildings on communities as a disease that once started it can quickly spread throughout a neighbourhood. The residents often felt unsafe walking on streets that have abandoned buildings.

Local governments may succeed conserving one building but often do not have sufficient resources to keep the demand of a growing number of vacant properties. Some property owners feel helpless in trying to recruit new tenants. Property owners become less interested in investing in these neighbourhoods. Many residents eventually leave while those who remain become accustomed to blight as the neighbourhood deteriorates. This cycle continues with each new pocket of vacant and abandoned properties (Schilling, 2002). In Contrast, by conserving those vacant properties for another use, the illegal activities that used to occur in those properties will be eliminated, which will bring peace and safety back to the neighbourhood.

2.6.3.3 The Sense of Place Factor

The built and natural environments are elements that express the distinctiveness of a community or a neighbourhood. Rypkema (1999) wrote about the sense of community and ownership: “A sense of ownership acknowledges an individual benefit from, an individual stake in, and an individual responsibility for one’s place. A sense of community acknowledges the obligations to and interconnectedness with the other residents of that place” (Rypkema, 1999). Deteriorated vacant buildings affect the identity of the community and drive residents to lose their sense of community ownership. This does not mean the ownership in a legal sense, but ownership in its broad meaning, where individuals acknowledge their responsibility and obligations for one’s place and for other residents of that place.

2.7 The Effect of Heritage Conservation on Property Value

The relationship between heritage conservation and the economic value of the properties was examined by the economics literature. Prior research reported a positive effect of heritage districting on property values. Other studies have been inconclusive, or have documented some negative effects, but the weight of evidence is toward positive effects. Rypkema (1994) cited evidence from Canada and found that, in every heritage district designated in Canada in the last 20 years, property values have risen despite the fact that development potential has been reduced. A study by New York City’s Independent Budget Office examined the effect of the local heritage district designation and regulation of real-estate prices and found evidence of a statistically significant price premium associated with the inclusion of a property in a heritage district. The extent of the premium varied from year to year, ranging from 22.6% to 71.8% (New York City Independent Budget Office, 2003).

2.8 Past Studies on the Old City of Ghadames

There is a significant lack of studies conducted in the old city of Ghadames. Even though few studies were done in the old city and the modern city of Ghadames; however, there is a lack of studies addressed the issue of the conservation of heritage buildings. Additionally, none of them attempted to develop guidelines for conserving heritage buildings of the old city of Ghadames. Some of research studies were carried out by Chojnacki, (2003); Elwefati, (2007); and Nura S., (2006).

Chojnacki, (2003) has presented research comprising a comparison of features between traditional and contemporary housing in the desert zone on the example of the city of Ghadames in Libya. The rationale behind the comparison of the microclimate prevailing in traditional and modern homes comes down to highlighting the enormous differences between the two, the poor adjustment of contemporary solutions to the conditions imposed by the natural environment, and the inability to achieve proper microclimatic conditions without using products of advanced technology. The comparison of the features of traditional and modern housing provides a method of assessing the microclimate conditions in those housing systems as a measurement of the quality of life of the residents. Suggestions were also made concerning the ways of controlling and improving the microclimate in the contemporary housing of the desert zones, as well as presenting and disseminating the research findings. The paper was a review of the observations of the traditional and contemporary housing architecture the author carried out in Algeria (1978) and Libya (1984-1988).

Other research by Elwefati, (2007) aimed to investigate the bio-climatic characteristics of traditional and contemporary residential architecture in three different climatic/geographical regions of Libya, which were represented by Tripoli in the “coastal region”; Gharyan in the “mountainous region”; and Ghadames in the “desert region”. It was undertaken to understand and evaluate the effects of building layout and orientation, wall thicknesses, ceiling height, construction materials, thermal mass and size of windows, on the resultant thermal comfort conditions of the buildings/dwellings in question.

An architectural survey of the dwellings was carried out and indoor and outdoor photos of houses were taken. Temperature and humidity data in pre-determined rooms of the dwellings, in addition to data relevant to exterior weather conditions were recorded by thermo-hygrometers. Residents who had experience of living in both traditional and contemporary dwellings were interviewed informally before preparing a comprehensive questionnaire, which was distributed to them to gather the required data.

It was found that traditional dwellings in Tripoli and Ghadames, in their present condition, did not provide the desired level of thermal comfort. This was attributed to a number of reasons. One was the abandonment of these dwellings by their occupants, in favour of those of modern style. The resulting collapse of some parts of adjacent house blocks, which used to provide a degree of protection against climatic conditions when working as a whole block of several attached houses. Another was the introduction of new construction materials that were incompatible with the original ones. However, traditional dwellings in both cities appeared to provide relatively better thermal comfort conditions in comparison with the use contemporary dwellings of recent years, except for those with air conditioning.

This situation was different in Gharyan, where the troglodyte dwellings were concerned. These dwellings were thermally more comfortable than the modern ones in the city. This was attributed to the fact that most of the existing troglodyte dwellings still preserved their original features to a large extent. At length, this study recommends that modern types of dwellings should adapt those features of the traditional ones that are most compatible and suitable for the local climatic conditions, in a way which guarantees optimum exploitation of local resources in terms of energy consumption and cost.

In addition to that Nura S. et al., (2006) have presented a study of the housing and the environmental requirements for desert housing in Libya (Ghadames old and new town). The study covers the traditional and modern houses in Ghadames, and also includes a review of previous studies on the same topic, and reviewing the problems and solutions. Their study has identified the solutions of desert housing problems in Libya, and found the reasons why people migrate from the new town to the old town and other cities near the coastal area during the summer time. A suitable solution for the desert housing problems that will suit the environment is to find a proper design for the desert houses which is affordable and environmentally responsive, including the proper materials that can be used to build the deserted houses such as the combination of the natural materials and the new materials, and to propose suitable desert development.

Their research can be divided into theoretical and practical parts. The theoretical part involves the identification of crucial issues through theoretical background such as literature and interviews theoretical. This background offered a realistic approach in gathering three kinds of information for the subject, first of all a closer look at a necessarily range of matters which has brought about desert housing problems in Libya, secondly a deeper study of issues, which is in the proposal formulated to important aspects of the problem, thirdly an application as a main output of the previous information. The practical part was focused on Ghadames; the study showed the problems of the desert housing in this area and proposed solutions to overcome these problems.

2.9 Conservation Programmes Conducted on the Old City of Ghadames

Conservation programmes conducted on heritage buildings of the old city of Ghadames are very few. According to Arrabti, (2011) and Al-Hasi, (2011), there is only one conservation programme executed and implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the UNDP Office for Project Services (UNOPS). The project is titled with “Rehabilitation of the old town of Ghadames”. The starting date of the project was on the 1st of April, 2000 and ending date was on the 1st of April, 2004. The total cost of the project in USD was 5,494,038, financed by Libyan government. According to the United Nations Development Programme and the UNDP Office for Project Services Report (2007), the project implemented a comprehensive action plan for the rehabilitation of the old city of Ghadames. The objectives of the project were as follows:

To revive the natural source of water that forms the life support of a desert oasis (Ain Alfaras) and the water distribution system provision of water of the homes and sanitation.

To re-cycle of wastewater for agricultural purposes.

To revitalize the orchards and farming production system in the area adjacent to the old city. To renovate and rehabilitate of adobe structures.

To promote a greater tourism service level through training and a better international recognition of Ghadames in its historical setting, and revitalize traditional handicrafts production to promote women’s income.

The project carried out the rebuilding of private houses by local residents, renovating water works, revitalizing agriculture, and improving tourist services by using local building materials such as bricks, lime, palm tree trunks and fronds. Workers had used locally quarried gypsum for replastering, and adobe bricks and palm trunks and branches for walls and roofs. In addition to improving the community’s quality of life, the project aimed at preserving cultural traditions and local knowledge, whilst at the same time promoting tourism and economic diversification.

Furthermore, the project has raised footpaths that serve small fields within the old town oasis. In addition, the project team had carried out hydrological and geological studies of the spring to analyse how to rehabilitate it. Over the centuries the people of Ghadames had developed an intricate network of canals fed by the spring, carrying water throughout the old town and its fields. The project was divided into two phases. The first phase was completed in 18 months; it focused on:

The rehabilitation of the water source system.

Assessment of available building material and structures and the formulation of a participatory capacity building program for the training of 10 work teams to undertake renovation activities.

Forging agreements with tour offices and the Ministry of Tourism for a more equitable share of tourism revenue to be designated for the preservation of the old city.

Rehabilitation of the handicraft industry and strengthening the role of women in its revival.

The second phase was completed in 36 months. It focused on rehabilitation of farms and improvement of production efficiencies of farming systems and integrating of products with the tourism sector. The main beneficiaries from the project were the tourist sector (offices, guides, hotels some commercial establishments, handicraft traders, including women, and transportation), owners of the homes and farms in the old city, renovation workers and supplier of building material. Preservation of such a national heritage is of special importance to the Libyan image in preserving a unique culture (United Nations Development Programme and the UNDP Office for Project Services Report, 2007).

According to the United Nations Development Programme and the UNDP Office for Project Services Report, (2007), renovation and rehabilitation of adobe structures of the heritage buildings are one of the objectives executed by the rehabilitation program. To achieve this objective, a national consultant (civil engineer) who has experience in renovation of adobe structures as a trainer was appointed and 70 technicians and skilled labourers for on the job training program were selected. Ten technicians of them and who have experience in renovation work at the old city of Ghadames were selected to train on survey of buildings for renovation needs and types of renovation material to be used. Available materials for renovation and the mixes to be used for the various repairs or reconstruction were reviewed. All 70 workers should participate in the preparation of various mixes and their use in the renovation activities. In addition, participatory sessions and field work days for owners of homes and older people who are familiar with the traditional methods of repair were conducted.

2.10 Stages of Conservation of Heritage Buildings

The process of conservation of heritage buildings comprises several main stages starting from studying the heritage area and collecting the data, and terminating with creation of plans and carrying out them. These stages are not separated; but nested with each other. It is worth mentioning that stages of conservation of heritage buildings are not consistent, namely, they vary from a team to another. So, no consistent basis can be determined for evaluating the architectural, constructional or the heritage building condition; but it depends on the views of the specialist team and their previous experiments. Accordingly, plan of conservation differs from the architectural plan for modern buildings because the conservation plan is subject to a series of international and local laws that insure preserving the historical value during the conservation process (Itma, 2007).

The conservation practice involves several main stages. According to A Ghafar, (2009), the framework of heritage building conservation includes: Preliminary investigation, dilapidation survey, preparation of Tender document, conservation works, and heritage management. Norlizaiha, (2011) defined three main stages in conservation practice including; documentation and record, dilapidation survey and building investigation, and conservation works. In addition, Itma, (2007) mentioned that the first stage for conservation of heritage building is to gather all historical and architectural information about the heritage buildings. Second stage according to the researcher is to evaluate the current construction condition of the heritage building including evaluation of the architectural and historical condition of the heritage building. The third stage is to establish the proposed conservation plan. Based on the above, the heritage building conservation practice includes the following stages:

Stage One: Documentation

Documentation includes two stages, historical research and measured drawing (Norlizaiha, 2011). Historical research should be conducted before starting any physical interventions. Its purpose is to collect all the available evidence on the heritage building such as previous historical reports, any old photographs, old maps, old paintings, drawings, etc. Measured drawing is used to illustrate the interior and exterior of a heritage building including the structural detail as well as to illustrate the defect areas such as separation in walls, cracks in plaster and the missing elements.

Stage Two: Dilapidation Survey and Building Investigation

A dilapidation survey is usually called preliminary inspection of the building. This survey is carried out through visual inspection of the heritage building, eventually, with the help of simple optical devices such as binoculars, etc. In some cases the separation or cracks of the surface of elements of the building, will be required (CIB Commission. 2010). According to Norlizaiha, (2011), a dilapidation survey is the practice of identifying and recording building defects through the means of photographic and digital documentation prior to any conservation work. The dilapidation survey is the process of exploring a heritage building to collect and record information based on observation of the surfaces and any exposed structure. Dilapidation surveys are considered instrumental if they achieve the following aspects (A Ghafar, 2004; Norlizaiha, 2011):

Understanding the state of building defects.

Determining the causes of the building defects.

Identifying appropriate methods and techniques of building conservation.

Providing reference materials to client, consultants and projects contractors.

A Ghafar, (2004) determined a multidisciplinary approach which makes the practice of dilapidation survey effective. He mentioned that the dilapidation survey should include a multidisciplinary approach which requires in-depth knowledge in conservation as well as other related fields so that correctly evaluate building defects, determine their causes, and proposes restoration methods. In addition, heritage buildings and their components should be investigated before taking any action. There are two stages of investigation, site testing and Laboratory test (Norlizaiha, 2011). The site can be tested by assessing material condition. In this investigation stage, some instruments such as a thermometer to measure the temperature of the environment can be used. Additionally, laboratory test should be used when visual inspection is unable to analyse the building defect. For example, to test the original composition of a material like mortar and plaster, laboratory test should be used in this case.

Stage 3: Conservation Works

After diagnosis of the defect of heritage buildings, the proposal of statement on technique to repair and conserve heritage buildings should be prepared. Cleaning the building surface from dirt and fungus is the preliminary activity in which the conservation works should begin firstly. All undesirable vegetation should be cut and positioned away from the building to prevent future root damage. In addition, temporary structure should be used to consolidate the buildings (A Ghafar, 2004).

The main conservation works will begin after preliminary works terminated. By doing this, the appearance of heritage building becomes clear and the conservation activities can be managed regularly such as removing rotten timber and deteriorated plaster. The activities should be followed by preservation, restoration, repair and reconstruction activities. The building conservation process begins with roof repair and continue with others part of building elements. The process is from the top to the down of the heritage buildings (Norlizaiha, 2011).

All conservation processes and activities are guided and controlled by the conservation guidelines and standards from National Heritage Dept. Especially, in the selection of the materials and technique, traditional materials like for example mud, brick, and mortar should be respected. If the traditional material is deteriorated, the new material must compatible with expression, appearance, texture, scale, colour, materials and form of the original. The reconstruction of missing and damaged elements also should respect the original technique and the design must base on historical documentation and compatible with the historic character. The last step in building conservation is preparation of the final report. The final report contains all conservation processes. Therefore, it is deemed an important evidence for future reference on heritage conservation and maintenance (Norlizaiha, 2011).

2.11 Laws and International Legislations

Laws and international legislations are considered one of heritage conservation policies. Laws that related to conserving heritage buildings are created according to two levels, local and international level. Legislation of heritage buildings on a local level is established by country, namely each country has a private legislation for conserving its heritage sites.

Governmental role is considered the main basis for carrying out the plan of conservation. Government is a link between international authorities and local authorities that interest heritage. It determines the necessary legislations for conservation of heritage sites. Government plans such as decisions have a positive effect on the appearance of the city and the quality of public services. Governmental intervention in conservation programs gives these plans the official situation, which leads to raise the spirit of nationalism and the public opinion in the field of conservation of the heritage sites. In addition, financial support determined by the government in its public balance sheet helps cover fees of conservation programs. Additionally, government intervention by force in some cases for carrying out the plans programs is very important (Al-Hanbali, 2005). On the international level, international organisations such as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) formulates laws with regard to heritage conservation, where UNESCO creates a general framework with an aim for organising and guiding the heritage conservation process. This framework includes charters and agreements related to the conservation of heritage buildings.

It is worth noting that legislation related to conservation of heritage buildings need to be developed periodically. This is clear in the literature where several studies evaluated legislation level. For example, in Malaysia, Syed Abdul Haris et al. (2008) examined legislation level in Malaysia, and found that the present legislation on heritage buildings is not sufficient and suitable to protect such buildings from being demolished and destroyed. Same this result was revealed by A Ghafar Ahmad et al. (2008) where they found that Malaysia faces several problems in dealing with the issues of heritage buildings. One of them, the present legislation on heritage buildings is not sufficient and suitable to protect such buildings from being renovated, refurbished or even demolished and destroyed. In addition, Al-Hanbali, (2005) examined the heritage conservation in the heritage cities in Palestine, and found no legislation or the laws of the restoration and preservation could be implemented in the old town of Nablus, where this is a major cause for the deterioration of buildings.

2.12 International Organisations that have an interest with heritage buildings

Conservation projects are normally carried out by agencies, governmental institutions such as archaeology authority that usually is under the Ministry of Culture. The archaeology authority is responsible for the management and conservation of heritage. In addition to these institutions that perform the function of heritage conservation, the international organisations that support this work and interest conservation of heritage sites.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and United Nations development Program (UNDP) perform many tasks for heritage conservation. They help their members by providing experiences such as engineers, restorers, specialists in photography, and city planners. They also present financial support and conduct scientific symposia in many heritage cities with an aim of attracting the international and local opinion for the city’s importance, and calling various parts of the world to donate and contribute to the implementation of the proposed conservation programs. UNESCO has already maintained and developed several heritage sites such as the Esfahan city in Iran, the Tunis city in Tunisia, and some projects such as Transmission project of the temples of Abu Simbel in Egypt and project of Florence city, Italy after the flood invaded it in 1966 (Itma, 2007).

Additionally, there are some other organisations that are also interesting with this subject by presenting their services and support through scientific studies and experiences needed such as the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and the International Institute of Conservation (IIC). The three precedent organisations are tracking the UNESCO. In addition to that, World Heritage Centre (WHC) and International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) are considered one of them.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

It is a specialised agency of the United Nations established on 16 November 1945. Its stated purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and the human rights along with fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the UN Charter. It is the heir of the League of Nations’ International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation. UNESCO has 193 Member States and seven Associate Members. The organisation is based in Paris, with over 50 field offices and many specialized institutes and centres throughout the world. Most of the field offices are “cluster” offices covering three or more countries; there are also national and regional offices (Wikipedia. 27 December 2012).

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

It is the United Nations’ global development network. It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. UNDP operates in 166 countries, working with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP and its wide range of partners. UNDP is an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly. The UNDP Administrator is the third highest ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-General and Deputy Secretary-General. Headquartered in New York City, the UNDP is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from member nations. The organisation has country offices in 166 countries, where it works with local governments to meet development challenges and develop local capacity. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help countries achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). UNDP provides expert advice, training, and grant support to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries (Wikipedia. 27 December 2012).

To accomplish the MDGs and encourage global development, UNDP focuses on poverty reduction, HIV/AIDS, democratic governance, energy and environment, social development, and crisis prevention and recovery. UNDP also encourages the protection of human rights and the empowerment of women in all of its programs. Furthermore, UNDP publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure and analyse developmental progress. In addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports (Wikipedia. 27 December 2012).

International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)

According to Australia ICOMOS Website, (27 December 2012), the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) is an association of professionals that currently brings together approximately 9500 members throughout the world, dedicated to the conservation of the world’s cultural heritage. The function of ICOMOS is to conserve and protect cultural heritage places. It is the unique global non-government organisation that is interested in promoting the implementation of theory, methodology, and scientific techniques to the conservation of the architectural and archaeological heritage. A work of ICOMOS depends on the principles drafted by the International Charter on the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites (the Venice Charter) in the 1964.

ICOMOS is a set of experts that benefits from the interdisciplinary exchange of its members, among which are architects, historians, archaeologists, art historians, geographers, anthropologists, engineers and town planners. The ICOMOS members contribute to optimizing the preservation of heritage, the standards and the techniques for each type of cultural heritage property such as buildings, historic cities, cultural landscapes and archaeological sites (ICOMOS Report. 2007).

International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

According to ICCROM website, (13 October 2010), ICCROM is an Intergovernmental organisation (IGO) dedicated to the conservation of cultural heritage. Currently, it has 129 Member States that represent the international community. A General Assembly consisting of delegates from all ICCROM Member States governs and manages the ICCROM. The General Assembly elects 25 members for the ICCROM Council. The Secretariat of ICCROM is managed by the Director-General and staff (ICCROM website, 13 October 2010).

The International Council of Museums (ICOM)

ICOM is a non-governmental organisation created in 1946, based in Paris, France, interested in conservation. It is also a non-profit organisation; therefore, it is financed primarily by membership fees and supported by various governmental and other bodies. It has formal relations and a consultative status with UNESCO. A part of UNESCO’s programme for museums is carried out by this organisation. ICOM includes international committees which focus on several types of museums such as art museums, military museums, transport museums, ethnographic museums and national committees which represent all the member nations. The international committees meet every year, as does the executive committee, while there is a full general conference of ICOM every three years. The first meeting was held in Paris in 1948, General Conferences have been held in Seoul in 2004, the first meeting in Asia and in Vienna in 2007 (Wikipedia, 27 December 2012).

The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (ICC)

Since 1950, (IIC) has highlighted the knowledge, methods and working standards required for protecting and preserving historic and artistic works throughout the world. Members of IIC are professionals who provide the best possible level of care for the world’s cultural heritage. They have a high level of awareness about the latest thinking and research, and they keep in touch with developments and with colleagues worldwide. IIC membership is necessary for all practicing and aspiring professionals in this field (ICC website, 27 December 2011).

Individual and institutional members support IIC which is considered an independent international organisation. IIC works as a link for communication among professionals with responsibility for the preservation of cultural heritage. It provides knowledge and standards for the conservation of historic and artistic works through its publications and conferences. It encourages professional excellence and public awareness by promoting its awards and scholarships. IIC co-operates closely with other organisations, notably ICOM-CC (International Council of Museums – Committee for Conservation) and ICCROM ”International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property” (ICC website, 27 December 2011).

2.13 Theory of Conservation

According to Nannestad, (2000), Conservation Theory has to be defined as a body of systematic thought which provides guidance to restorers and conservators, to curators, to museum staff, to responsible administrators and funding bodies even to the general public, concerning how to deal with cultural heritage as it is expressed in physical form and shape. In any conservation process the need for change is an essential. This need becomes crucial for many reasons related to economy, legislations, industry, architectural style and taste. Usually, in conservation practice there are three main questions which require answers. These answers depend on basics founded on the conservation theory has to answer (Larkham, 1996):

Who decided what to conserve?

How is conservation carried out?

What are the nature, scale and direction of change?

In general, the conservation theory is facing a major burden to deal with these main issues due to certain gaps. These gaps are caused by different factors; some are power and politics related factors. Others are related to the lack of development and research. One of these main gaps that conservation theory needs to overcome is the gap between international guidelines for the conservation of the historic sites and contemporary development. Since the UNESCO recommendations on urban sites was announced in 1976-more than thirty years ago, while these traditional views toward development and the link with contemporary architec