Methods Of Data Collection For Primary Data

Once the researcher has determined his research objective, research question, and the corresponding hypothesis for his research project, what he needs to do now is to collect the required data. Data is information from sample that the researcher would analyse in order to meet his research objective, facilitate his research question, and prove his research hypothesis. For example, the data or information about customers are gender, age, qualification, marital status, number of kids, monthly income, brand of car, type of house, religion, hobby, sports, leisure activities, credit cards, golf membership etc.

Figure 5.1: Methods of data collection (primary data)

Method for Collecting Primary Data

Survey Method

Observation Method

Face-to-Face Interview

Telephone Interview

Computerised Questionnaires

Direct Observation

Mechanical Observation

Content Analysis

Personal Interview

Mail Survey

Self-Administered Questionnaires

Actually, what variable to include in the study depends on your research objectives, research questions, and the corresponding research hypotheses. The researcher should always refer to the three elements above when determining what data to collect in order to avoid collecting the unnecessary data, or worse, not collecting the required data.

Based on Figure 6.1, the method of data collection can be classified into survey methods and observation methods.

A) Survey method

According to Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2010), survey is a research technique in which a sample is interviewed in some form or the behaviour of respondents is observed and described in some way.

In survey method, questionnaires are given to respondents to elicit information for the study. Respondents are asked the questions based on the information needed by the study. The questions may be asked in the verbal forms (interview), writing (mail questionnaire), or through computer (internet or e-mail).

Several advantages are

Quick

Efficient

Inexpensive

Accurate means of assessing information about a population

B) Types of survey methods

i) Personal interview: face to face communication in which an interviewer asks respondents to answer questions (Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2010).

Face to face interview

In the face-to-face interview (sometimes called personal interview), the researcher will prepare the questions to be asked during the interview with respondents. Each question represents the variable that the researcher wants to obtain its data. The questionnaires cover all variables required from a respondent. Before the interview begins, the researcher would explain the objective of research, ask for cooperation, and give assurance that the response given is only for research purpose and the information is treated with confidential.

This is important since personal data is confidential, and no one will reveal his personal information if the confidentiality is not assured. The interviewer should posses good personality so that the interview session proceeds smoothly and in a friendly atmosphere. During the interview, the interviewer will read the question and record the response. Personal interviews may be conducted at the respondents’ home, offices, or anywhere. Below are the common examples of places which are basically used to conduct the interview.

Door-to-door Interview

Door-to-door interview refers to the interview in which the respondents are interviewed face-to-face in their homes. The major advantage of this interview is high participation rate, but the disadvantage is high cost.

Mall Intercept Interview

Mall intercept interview refers to the personal interviews conducted in shopping malls. Interviewers typically intercept shoppers at a central point normally at the entrance to the mall. The advantage of this method is low cost since no travel required to the respondent’s home.

Mall intercept interview is appropriate when the respondents need to see, touch, or taste the product before they can provide meaningful information.

Computer-Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI)

This interview uses a computer to get the information from the respondents using several user-friendly electronic packages to design questions easier for the respondent to understand. However, this method is classified as personal interview technique because an interviewer is usually present to serve as a host and to guide the respondents. CAPI is normally used to collect data at shopping malls, product clinics, conferences, and trade shows.

Advantages of face-to-face interview

Higher response rate. With proper plan and approach, the respondents will not turn down the request for an interview. The interviewer must be friendly and creative in getting cooperation from respondents. The interview method normally achieves a response rate of more than 70%.

Data more accurate. The face-to-face meeting allows the interviewer to clarify terms or anything which might confuse the respondents. Once the respondent understands the question, he will provide an accurate response.

The interviewer can note specific reactions by respondents during interview. The physical reaction and facial expression by respondent can tell whether he is providing accurate responses or not. The interviewer can also note the physical environment surrounding the interview such as the respondents’ office, the house, the dress etc that should tally with his response.

People will usually respond with good gesture and provide accurate responses when approached in person. The Malay culture of not saying “no” still holds true when someone comes to the door with polite and peaceful manner.

An experienced interviewer can sense out if the respondent is trying to hide some information. In this case, he will use his creativity to clarify the intention or terminate the interview.

Disadvantages of face-to-face interview

High cost. Interviewers must be given specific training on methods such as the art of making personal approach, the art of asking questions, the art of requesting cooperation etc, which is expensive and time consuming. The interviewer must be confident enough to work on his own. At the same time, the daily allowance for travelling, food, lodging etc is very high.

Incomplete response. Any small mistake by interviewer can cause error in the response. The mistake such as using a wrong approach, bad facial expression, coming at the wrong time, not sensitive to certain issue in the conversation sometimes could hinder respondents from giving truthful response.

Error in recording. This happens especially when the interview session is in a hurry due to time constrain on part of respondents. The interviewer who needs to read the question and record the response quickly and simultaneously is prone to making mistakes.

Require close supervision. The interviewers’ work should be supervised closely to avoid interviewer cheating. Sometimes, due to many reasons such as time constraint, respondent is difficult to contact or the respondent is not available during appointment time, the interviewer will fill the response on his own.

Telephone interview

Sometime it is possible to collect data through telephone conversation. This method is possible if the researcher has complete directory of telephone numbers of population under study. If the respondents are government officers, employees of private firm, professional people such as doctors, lawyers, accountants etc, then the researcher have the option of using this method.

Traditional Telephone Interview

In traditional telephone interview, respondents are called through the telephone and the interviewer will ask a series of questions and record the responses. Respondents are more willing to provide detailed and reliable information on a variety of personal topics over the telephone than with personal interviews.

Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (CATI)

CATI uses a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone. The interviewer would contact respondents over the telephone, read questions posed on the computer screen, and record the respondent’s answers directly into the computer memory bank. The computer systematically guides the interviewer and checks the responses for appropriateness and consistency.

Advantages of telephone interview

Less expensive compared to the face-to-face interview. The financial cost for travelling, lodging, and outstation allowance is not involved.

Less time consuming. The number of respondents interviewed through telephone in one day is much higher than the number interviewed through face to face.

Easy monitoring. The researcher can monitor the interviewers’ work more easily since he can check the telephone numbers of respondents and the time called.

Disadvantages of telephone interview

Lower response rate. The rate of response is lower since the respondents can just “hang-up” the call when he realised it is time consuming, or unsure of the confidentiality of the conversation.

Fewer questions could be asked. Usually the conversation through the telephone cannot take long especially when the topic of discussion is not interesting, especially for the respondent since he has no particular interest in it.

Difficult to get good cooperation. Conversation through the phone is not convincing enough especially when trying to get cooperation from the respondent. It is difficult to convince someone when they cannot see you in person, your facial expression, you body gesture etc.

2) Self-administered questionnaire

In this technique, the researcher distributes questionnaires to respondents personally, through mail service, by inserting in the newspapers, or by sending to the email address. The difference between self-administered questionnaires compared to personal interview is in the self-administered questionnaire, the respondents make an effort to read and respond to the questions. However, the effectiveness of self-administered questionnaire will depend on the efficiency of the written words rather than the soft skill of interviewers.

Mail Survey

A mail survey is a self-administered questionnaire sent to pre-selected respondents through the mail. Basically, a mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, return envelope, and possibly an incentive.

Mail Panel

A mail panel consists of a large, nationally representative sample of households that have agreed to participate in periodic mail questionnaires and product tests. The data on the panel members is updated every year and households are compensated with various incentives. Mail panel is appropriate for longitudinal design studies which allow obtaining information from the same respondents repeatedly.

Advantages of mail survey

Low cost.

No interviewer bias

Disadvantages of mail survey

Low response rate

Slow data collection speed

Structured questionnaires

One of the most popular methods of collecting research data is through the structured questionnaire. These questionnaires are self-explained and self-administered. In using this method, the researcher designs carefully a series of questions that cover the variables of interest in the study such as the respondents’ demographic background, their opinions concerning certain issues, their perception concerning certain service performance, and their intentions to do in the future etc. Structured refers to the degree of standardization imposed in the process of data collection (questionnaires). In other words, the researcher arranges the questions properly on a paper together with the cover letter to explain the purpose of data collection, the instruction to the respondents on how to respond to the questions, and the assurance of confidentiality of information provided.

Advantages of a questionnaire

Lowest cost incurred. The cost is low due to no interview, no training of interviewers, no travelling, no lodging allowance involved.

No monitoring cost incurred. Usually the sending of questionnaires and receipt of responses from respondents are done by the researcher himself.

More respondents and wider area can be covered. The researchers can send his questionnaires to as many respondents as he likes since the cost for each respondent is very small.

Response more accurate. Since there is no influence, no gesture, no facial expression, and no interruption from the interviewer, the respondents can answer the questions at his own convenience. This manner will assure the accuracy of responses.

Disadvantages of a questionnaire

The poor rate of response from respondents. Since the researcher does not have gestures or face-to-face contact with respondents, the respondents can just throw away the questionnaires. In this method, the researcher should make a regular follow up contact with respondents using letter or telephone call. Usually the researcher would call the respondents earlier to inform them that he is sending a questionnaire to obtain data for his specific objective. The call is made as a gesture in order to obtain good cooperation from respondents.

Once the respondent has difficulty regarding certain terms or questions in the questionnaire, he will not bother completing the remaining questions since nobody is available to explain. Sometimes the respondents simply send back the incomplete response.

There is no assurance that the person who responds to the questionnaire is the intended respondent or the legitimate respondent. This matter will result in sample not being representative of the population.

Private agents who conduct surveys found that people are more likely to respond to mail questionnaire that has professional appearance and come together with attractive prizes such as lucky draws for the respondents who send the completed questionnaire in time. Some questionnaires obtain good responses from respondents especially the questionnaire that comes together with the warranty cards when customers purchase certain products. Customers will have to answer series of questions on the warranty cards before sending back to the manufacturer for product warranty.

Computerised questionnaire

Internet survey

Lately, the internet poll has become one of the popular methods to obtain information from the public especially their opinion concerning certain issue of public interest. In internet survey, the researcher brings an issue to attention and requests the opinion from the public. The public can respond by voting the statement that closely resembles their opinion. At the same time they can view the current standing in term of the most popular opinion and the corresponding vote obtained.

Internet survey appears when a computer user is asked to go to a particular Web site location and answer the series of questions displayed in the website. In this technique, the respondents are not selected using specific technique but those who visit the Web site where the survey is posted are invited to participate in the survey.

2. E-mail survey

In the e-mail survey, questionnaires are sent out to the respondents directly through their e-mail address. The respondents would reply the email by providing their response to each item on the questionnaire. The professional market research groups are using the internet to send their questionnaires to the respondents’ email. The respondents would complete their respective questionnaires and also return through the internet to the researcher’s e-mail address. Normally, these research agencies would provide certain rewards in terms of discount coupons etc in order to encourage the respondents to participate in the study.

Advantages of computerised questionnaire

Low cost.

Very high data collection speed.

Non interviewer bias

Disadvantages of computerised questionnaire

Very low response rate

Low control of data collection method

B) The observation methods

According to Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2010), observation is the systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and occurrences as they are witnessed. Several types of observation methods are:

Direct observation

In this method, the researcher will identify his respondents and records the required data based on what he observes. This method is suitable for a research to study the behaviour of respondents. For example, the research is carried out to identify how car drivers behave on the road during traffic jam. In his observation, the researcher will record the type of drivers who follow the traffic rules properly, and the type of drivers who choose to ignore rules such as queue jumping or overtaking using emergency lanes. The researcher may also be interested to know the types of vehicles (motorcycles, cars, buses, and lorries) which always ignore traffic rules during traffic jams. Another area where this method is suitable is to observe customers’ behaviour in the supermarket. In the market research study for example, the researcher is interested to know how customers make decisions in choosing which shampoo to buy. The researcher will stand in the area where hundreds of shampoos of different brands are placed on the rack. He will record how the customers choose the shampoo. Most probably some customers have decided earlier which brand to buy; some customers will compare prices, packaging, and even the smells before buying the shampoo. The researcher will record specific characteristics of customers who prefer certain brands of shampoo etc.

Advantages of direct observation

The data obtained reflect the actual behaviour of respondents. The respondents will tend to hide their actual behaviour when approached in person or when answering the questionnaires.

The researcher gets a clearer picture and a better feeling of the situations for his study. Hence, he will be in a better position to make a proper recommendation regarding the underlying phenomena in the study.

Disadvantages of direct observation

The respondent will not act his normal behaviour if he knows that he is being observed.

The data collection process is cumbersome and tedious.

Mechanical observation

Sometimes certain mechanical devices such as video cameras, rather than human observers to observe are used and record customer behaviours. The devices do not require the respondents’ direct participation in the study but they will capture the respondents’ behaviour for analysis. The early application of this technique is in a study to determine the level of comfort among train passengers by taping or recording how they sat and moved in their seats.

Advantages of mechanical observation

It offers high disguise by using the hidden camera. However, other mechanical device such as the use of psycho galvanometers is very difficult to disguise.

Low observation bias since mechanical observation involves the non-human observer.

Disadvantages of mechanical observation

Low ability to observe in a natural setting. However, it depends on the mechanical tools used in the observation. The degree is low when using psycho galvanometer but high if using turnstiles.

Less flexible.

Content analysis

Content analysis is usually used to study communication rather than behaviour, or physical objects. It is defined as the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. Content analysis obtains data by observing and analyzing the contents or messages of advertisements, newspaper articles, television programs, etc.

It involves analysis as well as observation which systematically analyze people’s communication to identify the specific information contents and other characteristics such as words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message).

Advantages of content analysis

High degree of disguise since the data is collected over the situation to be observed.

High degree of observation specification and measurement.

Disadvantages of content analysis

Low ability to observe in natural setting because observation takes place after the behaviour has occurred.

Potential of observation bias because human observer is involved in data collection process.

5.3 Factors determining choice of survey methods.

Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical decisions in many social research contexts. You’ll see that there are very few simple rules that will make the decision for you — you have to use your judgment to balance the advantages and disadvantages of different survey types. There are several factors needs to be considered:

Population issues

The first set of considerations has to do with the population and its accessibility.

Can the population be specified?

For some populations, you have a complete listing of the units that will be sampled. For others, such a list is difficult or impossible to compile. For instance, there are complete listings of registered voters or person with active drivers’ licenses. But no one keeps a complete list of homeless people. If you are doing a study that requires input from homeless persons, you are very likely going to need to go and find the respondents personally. In such contexts, you can pretty much rule out the idea of mail surveys or telephone interviews.

Is the population literate?

Questionnaires require that your respondents can read. While this might seem initially like a reasonable assumption for many adult populations, we know from recent research that the instance of adult illiteracy is alarmingly high. And, even if your respondents can read to some degree, your questionnaire may contain difficult or technical vocabulary. Clearly, there are some populations that you would expect to be illiterate. Young children would not be good targets for questionnaires

Are there language issues?

We live in a multilingual world. Virtually every society has members who speak other than the predominant language. Can you produce multiple versions of your questionnaire? For mail instruments, can you know in advance the language your respondent speaks, or do you send multiple translations of your instrument? Can you be confident that important connotations in your instrument are not culturally specific? Could some of the important nuances get lost in the process of translating your questions?

Will the population cooperate?

People who do research on immigration issues have a difficult methodological problem. They often need to speak with undocumented immigrants or people who may be able to identify others who are. Why would we expect those respondents to cooperate? Although the researcher may mean no harm, the respondents are at considerable risk legally if information they divulge should get into the hand of the authorities. The same can be said for any target group that is engaging in illegal or unpopular activities.

What are the geographic restrictions?

Is your population of interest dispersed over too broad a geographic range for you to study feasibly with a personal interview? It may be possible for you to send a mail instrument to a nationwide sample. You may be able to conduct phone interviews with them. But it will almost certainly be less feasible to do research that requires interviewers to visit directly with respondents if they are widely dispersed

Sampling issues

The sample is the actual group you will have to contact in some way. There are several important sampling issues you need to consider when doing survey research.

What data is available?

What information do you have about your sample? Do you know their current addresses? Do you have their current phone numbers? Do you have an up to date contact lists?

Can these respondents be found?

Can your respondents be located? Some people are very busy. Some travel a lot. Some work the night shift. Even if you have an accurate phone or address, you may not be able to locate or make contact with your sample.

Who is the respondent?

Who is the respondent in your study? Let’s say you draw a sample of households in a small city. A household is not a respondent. Do you want to interview a specific individual? Do you want to talk only to the “head of household” (and how is that person defined)? Are you willing to talk to any member of the household? Do you state that you will speak to the first adult member of the household who opens the door? What if that person is unwilling to be interviewed but someone else in the house is willing?

Can all members of population be sampled?

If you have an incomplete list of the population (i.e., sampling frame) you may not be able to sample every member of the population. Lists of various groups are extremely hard to keep up to date. People move or change their names. Even though they are on your sampling frame listing, you may not be able to get to them. And, it’s possible they are not even on the list.

Are response rates likely to be a problem?

Even if you are able to solve all of the other population and sampling problems, you still have to deal with the issue of response rates. Some members of your sample will simply refuse to respond. Others have the best of intentions, but can’t seem to find the time to send in your questionnaire by the due date. Still others misplace the instrument or forget about the appointment for an interview. Low response rates are among the most difficult of problems in survey research. They can ruin an otherwise well-designed survey effort

Question issues

Sometimes the nature of what you want to ask respondents will determine the type of survey you select.

What types of questions can be asked?

Are you going to be asking personal questions? Are you going to need to get lots of detail in the responses? Can you anticipate the most frequent or important types of responses and develop reasonable closed-ended questions?

How complex will the questions be?

Sometimes you are dealing with a complex subject or topic. The questions you want to ask are going to have multiple parts. You may need to branch to sub-questions.

Will the screening of questions be needed?

A screening question may be needed to determine whether the respondent is qualified to answer your question of interest. For instance, you wouldn’t want to ask someone their opinions about a specific computer program without first “screening” them to find out whether they have any experience using the program. Sometimes you have to screen on several variables (e.g., age, gender, experience). The more complicated the screening, the less likely it is that you can rely on paper-and-pencil instruments without confusing the respondent.

Can question sequence be controlled?

Is your survey one where you can construct in advance a reasonable sequence of questions? Or, are you doing an initial exploratory study where you may need to ask lots of follow-up questions that you can’t easily anticipate?

Will lengthy questions be asked?

If your subject matter is complicated, you may need to give the respondent some detailed background for a question. Can you reasonably expect your respondent to sit still long enough in a phone interview to ask your question?

Will long response scales be used?

If you are asking people about the different computer equipment they use, you may have to have a lengthy response list (CD-ROM drive, floppy drive, mouse, touch pad, modem, network connection, external speakers, etc.). Clearly, it may be difficult to ask about each of these in a short phone interview.

Content issues

The content of your study can also pose challenges for the different survey types you might utilize.

Can the respondents be expected to know about the issue?

If the respondent does not keep up with the news (e.g., by reading the newspaper, watching television news, or talking with others), they may not even know about the news issue you want to ask them about. Or, if you want to do a study of family finances and you are talking to the spouse who doesn’t pay the bills on a regular basis, they may not have the information to answer your questions.

Will respondent need to consult records?

Even if the respondent understands what you’re asking about, you may need to allow them to consult their records in order to get an accurate answer. For instance, if you ask them how much money they spent on food in the past month, they may need to look up their personal check and credit card records. In this case, you don’t want to be involved in an interview where they would have to go look things up while they keep you waiting (they wouldn’t be comfortable with that).

Bias issues

People come to the research endeavor with their own sets of biases and prejudices. Sometimes, these biases will be less of a problem with certain types of survey approaches.

Can social desirability be avoided?

Respondents generally want to “look good” in the eyes of others. None of us likes to look like we don’t know an answer. We don’t want to say anything that would be embarrassing. If you ask people about information that may put them in this kind of position, they may not tell you the truth, or they may “spin” the response so that it makes them look better. This may be more of a problem in an interview situation where they are face-to face or on the phone with a live interviewer.

Can interviewer distortion and subversion be controlled?

Interviewers may distort an interview as well. They may not ask questions that make them uncomfortable. They may not listen carefully to respondents on topics for which they have strong opinions. They may make the judgment that they already know what the respondent would say to a question based on their prior responses, even though that may not be true.

Can false respondents be avoided?

With mail surveys it may be difficult to know who actually responded. Did the head of household complete the survey or someone else? Did the CEO actually give the responses or instead pass the task off to a subordinate? Is the person you’re speaking with on the phone actually who they say they are? At least with personal interviews, you have a reasonable chance of knowing who you are speaking with. In mail surveys or phone interviews, this may not be the case.

vi) Administrative issues

Last, but certainly not least, you have to consider the feasibility of the survey method for your study.

costs

Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You might prefer to do personal interviews, but can’t justify the high cost of training and paying for the interviewers. You may prefer to send out an extensive mailing but can’t afford the postage to do so.

facilities

Do you have the facilities (or access to them) to process and manage your study? In phone interviews, do you have well-equipped phone surveying facilities? For focus groups, do you have a comfortable and accessible room to host the group? Do you have the equipment needed to record and transcribe responses?

time

Some types of surveys take longer than others. Do you need responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Have you budgeted enough time for your study to send out mail surveys and follow-up reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Have you allowed for enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify that approach?

personnel

Different types of surveys make different demands of personnel. Interviews require interviewers who are motivated and well-trained. Group administered surveys require people who are trained in group facilitation. Some studies may be in a technical area that requires some degree of expertise in the interviewer.

Clearly, there are lots of issues to consider when you are selecting which type of survey you wish to use in your study. And there is no clear and easy way to make this decision in many contexts. There may not be one approach which is clearly the best. You may have to make tradeoffs of advantages and disadvantages. There is judgment involved. Two expert researchers may, for the very same problem or issue, select entirely different survey methods. But, if you select a method that isn’t appropriate or doesn’t fit the context, you can doom a study before you even begin designing the instruments or questions themselves.

(http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/survsel.php)

5.4 Errors in survey research.

According to Zikmund (2003), there are two major sources of error in survey are random sampling error and systematic error.

Random sampling error.

The difference between the true population value and the sample value may cause a random sampling error. A small error usually might occur if the population is homogeneous and error might be larger, if the population is heterogeneous and respondents included into the sample are those unusual elements.

Non sampling error or systematic error

is the error resulting from some imperfect aspects of the research design that causes response error which is referred as Respondent Error or from a mistake in the execution of the research task which is known as the Administrative Error.

There’s two type of respondent error that is:

Non-Response Error and

Response Bias.

Non- response error

Non-response error occurs when there is a mistake for including those who failed to respond. That is, no responses from the respondents or a perfect survey that would also include those who failed to respond. Then people who are not contacted or who refuse to cooperate are called non- respondents. A potential respondents who is not at home is otherwise inaccessible on the first and second attempt at contact known as no contact. Then, respondent refusal occur the respondent is unwilling to answer the questions

b) Response bias

Zikmund (2003), a response bias occurs when respondents tends to answer in a certain direction, that is, when they consciously or unconscious misrepresent the truth such as deliberate falsification (give false answer) and unconscious misrepresentation (bias arise from questions format, content etc).

There are several types of response bias:

Acquiescence bias:

Bias that occurs when individuals have the tendency to agree with the questions forwarded to them. They tend to indicate a positive connotation. They seem to agree to almost every statement they are asked about.

ii) Extremity bias:

The extremity bias occurs when some respondents tend to answer the questions according to their extremes. The survey results could be bias following the different styles of response from each respondent.

Auspices bias:

Bias that is caused by the influence factors that come may be from the interviewer or the organization that conduct the study.

Social desirability bias:

Bias response is caused by the respondents’ attitudes and desire. Some respondents tend to answer questions for some other purpose, either consciously or unconsciously. For example, they want to gain social prestige or to show-off their social standards, etc.

2) Administrative error:

The results of improper administration or execution of the research task are examples of administrative error. Such errors are inadvertently caused by confusion, neglect, omission, or some other blunder. There are four types of administrative error:

a) Data processing error: The accuracy of the data processed by computer depends on correct data entry and programming. Mistakes can be avoided if verification procedures are employed at each processing stage.

b) Sample selection error: This type of error is a systematic error that results in an unrepresentative sample because of an error in either the sample design or execution of the sampling procedure.

c) Interviewer error: Interviewers may record an answer incorrectly or selective perception may influence them to record data supportive of their own attitudes.

d) Interviewer cheating: To avoid possible cheating, it is wise to inform the interviewers that a small sample of respondents will be back to confirm that the interview actually took place.

5.6 Fieldwork

a) What is fieldwork?

A personal interviewer administering a questionnaire door-to-door, a telephone interviewer calling from a central location, an observer counting pedestrians in a shopping mall, are all examples of researchers conducting fieldwork (Zikmund, 2003).

Who conducts fieldwork?

The actual data collection process is rarely done by the person who designs the research. The people who collect the data, or who supervise the data collection, are called fieldworkers. The people who gather the data typically have little research training or experience. Knowing that research is no better than the data collected in the field, research administrators must concentrate on performing a good job in the selection of fieldworkers.

Field interviewing services and full-service business research agencies typically employ field supervisors who supervise and train interviewers, edit completed questionnaires in the field, and confirm that interviews have been conducted by telephoning or re-contacting respondents.

Whether the research administrator hires in-house interviewers or selects a field interviewing service, it is desirable that fieldworkers meet certain job requirements.

Fieldwork may be strenuous and healthy individuals, generally between 18 and 55 years of age, seem to have the most stamina. Having interviewers that are outgoing helps ensure respondents’ full cooperation. Interviewer bias may enter in if the fieldworker’s clothing or physical appearance is unattractive or unusual.

In House Training For inexperience Interviewers

After personnel are recruited and selected, they must be trained. Almost always there will be a briefing session on the particular project.

The objective of training is to assure that the data collection instrument will be administered in a uniform fashion by all fieldworkers. In most extensive training programs, the following topics are likely to be covered:

Making initial contact and securing the interview:

Interviewers will be trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the respondent that his or her cooperation is important. For example, by indicating that the telephone call is long distance, interviewers attempt to impress respondents because most people feel a long-distance call is something special, unusual, or important. Giving one’s name personalizes the call and using the name of the research agency implies that the caller is trustworthy.

B. Asking the questions:

Considerable training in the art of stating questions can be extremely beneficial because this form of interviewer bias can be a source of considerable error in survey research. The major principles for asking questions are:

1. Ask the questions exactly as they are worded in the questionnaire.

2. Read each question very slowly.

3. Ask the questions in the order in which they are presented in the questionnaire.

4. Ask every question specified in the questionnaire.

5. Repeat questions that are misunderstood or misinterpreted.

Inexperienced interviewers may not understand the importance of severe adherence to the instructions. Even professional interviewers take shortcuts when the task becomes boring. Even the smallest amount change in wording can distort the meaning of the question and cause some bias to enter into the study.

C. Probing:

General training of interviewers should include instructions on how to probe. Probing may be needed in two types of situations. First, it is necessary in situations in which the respondent must be motivated to enlarge on, clarify, or explain his or her answers. The ability to probe with neutral stimuli is the mark of an experienced interviewer. Second, probing may be necessary in situations in which the respondent begins to ramble or lose track of the question. In such cases, the respondent must be led to focus on the specific content of the interview. The interviewer will have several possible probing tactics to choose from, depending on the situation.

i) Repeating the question: when the respondent remains completely silent, he or she may not have understood the question or decided how to answer it. Mere repetition may encourage the respondent to answer.

ii) A silent probe: if the interviewer believes that the respondent has more to say, a silent probe-that is, an expectant pause or look-may motivate the respondent to gather his or her thoughts and give a complete response.

iii) Repeating the respondent’s reply: This may stimulate the respondent to expand on the answer.

iv) Neutral questions or comments: Asking a neutral question may specifically indicate the type of information that the respondent is seeking. For example, if the interviewer believes that the respondent’s motives should be clarified, he or she might ask, “Why do you feel that way?” Exhibit 18.1 shows some standard interview probes and the standard abbreviations that are recorded on the questionnaire with the respondent’s answer.

Probes should be neutral and not leading. Probes may be general, or they may be questions specifically designed by the interviewer to clarify a particular statement by the respondent.

D. Recording the responses:

Although the concept of recording an answer seems extremely simple, mistakes can be made in this phase of the research. Each fieldworker should use the same mechanics of recording. For example, the utilization of a pencil is extremely important. The Interviewer’s Manual of the Survey Research Centre suggestions for recorded open-ended answers are as follows.

E. Record response during the interview.

i) Use the respondent’s own words.

Do not summarize or paraphrase the respondent’s answer.

iii) Include everything that pertains to the question objectives.

iv) Include all of your probes.

Interviewers should always resist the temptation to conserve time and space by filtering comments.

F. Terminating the interview:

The final aspect of training deals with instructing interviewers on how to close the interview and exit the household. The interviewer whose departure is hasty may not be able to record those spontaneous comments respondents sometimes offer after all formal questions have been asked. The fieldworker should also answer any respondent’s questions concerning the nature and the purpose of the study.

iv) Fieldwork management

Managers of the field operation select, train, supervise, and control fieldworkers.

A. Briefing session for experienced interviewers: There is always a need to inform fieldworkers about the individual project. Both experienced and inexperienced fieldworkers must be briefed on the background of the sponsoring organization, sampling techniques, asking of questions, call-back procedures, and other matters specific to the particular project to the trainees.

B. Training to avoid procedural errors in sample selection: The briefing session will also cover the sampling procedure. A number of research projects allow the interviewer to be at least partially responsible for selecting the sample. When this is the case, the potential for selection bias exists. Avoiding this may not be as simple as it sounds. Considerable effort in training and supervisory control should be carried out to minimize these errors.

V. Supervision of fieldworker.

Although briefing and training will minimize the probability of interviewing the wrong households or asking biased questions, there is still considerable potential for errors in the field. Direct supervision of fieldworkers is necessary to ensure that the techniques communicated in the training sessions are implemented in the field.

Field supervision of interviewers requires checking to see that field procedures are being properly followed. If there are any problems, supervisors discuss these matters with the fieldworkers, providing additional training when necessary. In addition to quality control, continual training may be provided.

A. Sampling verification: Another important job of the supervisor is to verify that the interviews are being conducted according to the sampling plan rather than the selection of households most accessible to the interviewer. Interviewers may be reluctant to interview sampling units who they feel may be difficult or undesirable to interview.

Interviewing the right respondent: Supervisors must make sure that the right respondent within the household is being interviewed. For example, it may be easier for the interviewer to interview a secretary than a corporate manager. Field workers are given instructions to ensure that the correct person is being interviewed.

B. Interviewer cheating: Interviewer cheating in its most blatant form occurs when an interviewer falsifies interviews, merely filling in fake answers rather than contacting respondents. This situation is not common if the job of selection has been properly accomplished. However, there are less obvious forms of interviewer cheating that occur with greater frequency. Quota samples are often seen as time consuming, and the interviewer may stretch the requirements a bit to obtain seemingly qualified respondents.

An interviewer may fake part of a questionnaire to make it acceptable to the field supervisor. Interviewers fake answers when they find questions embarrassing or troublesome to ask because of sensitive subjects.

Verification by re-interviewing: Supervisors verify approximately 15 percent of the interviews by re-interviewing, normally the interview is not repeated, but the supervisors re-contact respondents and ask about the length of the interview and their reaction to the interviewer. Such verification can indicate when the interviewer has falsified interviews without contacting the potential respondent. However, it does not detect the more subtle from of cheating.

Nevertheless, telephone or postcard validation checks often remind interviewers to be conscientious in their work. A validation check may simply point out that an interviewer contacted the proper household but interviewed the wrong individual in that household. This, of course, can be a serious error.

5.7 Classifying Survey Research Method

Survey can be classified based on the method of communication, the degrees of structures and disguise in the questionnaire, and the time frame in which the data are gathered (temporal classification).

Structured/unstructured questionnaires and Undisguised/ Disguised questions

In designing questionnaire, the researcher must decide how much structure or standardization is needed.

A structure question limits the number of allowable responses eg: choose one alternative response such as i) below 25 ii) 26 – 45 iii) over 45

An unstructured question does not limit the respondent’s answer eg: an open- ended question, Why do you attend the courses?. It allows the respondents answering in their way.

Undisguised / disguised questions

Undisguised is a straightforward question that assumes the respondent is willing to answer. eg: Do you financial problem?. It will assume that the respondents want to disclose information.

Disguised is indirect questions that assume the purpose of the study must be hidden form the respondents.

Cross sectional / Longitudinal studies

Cross sectional study is a study in which various segments of populations are sampled and a data are collected at single moment in time.

Longitudinal study is a survey of respondents at different times, thus allowing analysis of response continuity and changes over time.