Present Day Idioms And Their Evolution English Language Essay
It is said that idioms break either the rules of grammar or the rules of logic. Of these, the first kind, the ungrammatical phrases, made acceptable by usage, are the most obvious and in any old-fashioned book on good English will be found lists of “these wild creatures of talk, nailed up, like noxious birds and vermin, by the purists and preservers of your speech”. The phrase “it is me” is a familiar instance; other instances are “who did you see?”, “than who?”, “very pleased”, “try and go” (for “to try to go”), the split infinitive, the use of the superlative when only two objects are compared ,”the best” (instead of the “better of the two”) and phrases like “less than no time”, “more than pleased”, “as tall or taller than you” etc.
Grammar, in the sense which we usually give to the word, that is to say not a mere neutral registration of what the speech-forms are, but a regulative ideal of what according to the laws of logic and analogy they ought to be, grammar in this sense is the neutral enemy of idiom, and continually preys upon it. The tendency of modern grammarians is to accept usage and to explain it by means of history and psychology, but older grammarians conceived that they had a higher mission. From the study of Latin and from a comparison of different European languages, they arrived at a conception of universal grammar, based upon the laws of logic and the constitution of the human mind; and this the grammarians of each country tried to impose upon their own language-to refine it to grammatical purity, to banish as far as possible its local idiosyncrasies, to do away with its anomalies and exceptions and to impose regularity upon it within its domestic economy. Owing to the efforts of these grammarians, a number of English idiomatic usages have been stigmatized as incorrect and driven from the standard speech. Of these, perhaps the most conspicuous is the double negative, which was perfectly correct in the time of Chaucer, lingered on till the age of Shakespeare and is still in current use in the speech of the vast majority of English people. Owing, however, to the logical, yet un-psychological, notion that doubling a negative destroys, instead of strengthening it, this idiom, although it was correct in Greek, and found in French, Spanish and Romanian is regarded as a gross vulgarism in modern English. So, also the double comparative and the double superlative, as we find them in Shakespeare’s “more better”, “more nearer”, “most boldest”, “most unkindest” are now considered most incorrect. But anomalous constructions of this kind are merely the natural results of preferred clearness of expression to logical symmetry.
Another idiom which was once correct, but which grammarians have succeeded in stigmatizing as a vulgarism is the expression “these kind” and “these sort” of things, although it is found up to the nineteenth century in many good authors and although “by these means” is still regarded as good English. “For to” joined with the infinitive is now a vulgarism, although it is found in the Bible “What went ye out for to see?” and in Shakespeare’s line: “Forbid the sea for to obey the moon”.
Weather we regard the elimination of these old idioms as a benefit or as a detriment to the language, the loss or gain in any particular instance is not perhaps of great importance. In one point, however, the attempt to enforce an ideal of grammatical purity on the language has inflicted upon it a serious injury. The point we refer to is the notion that it is illiterate and incorrect or at least inelegant to place a preposition or an adverb at the end of a sentence. It was Dryden, himself one of the most idiomatic English writers, who first expressed this notion. He tried to eliminate idioms of this kind changing “the end he aimed at” into “the end at which he aimed” and “the age I live in” into “the age in which I live”. This notion, that the preposition should precede the word it governs, that it is better to say “the man to whom I had written” than “the man I had written to” became little by little almost universally accepted. This notion still persists although the idiom is perfectly good English and has only been condemned because it was not found in Latin or in languages derived from Latin. Fortunately, the prejudice expressed in the school master’s phrase that “the preposition is a very bad word to end a sentence with” has not completely succeeded in banishing this “anglicism” (as it was called) from the language.
Several useful idioms have also succeeded in establishing themselves in spite of the opposition of purists and grammarians. The “compound possessive” as it is called, “someone else’s ” instead of “someone’s else”, the double genitive “a picture of the King’s” (which has a different meaning from “a picture of the King”) are now accepted as useful additions to the resources of the English language. So also the passive construction “the house is being built” (for “the house is building”) has become good English although grammarians protested against this irregular collocation of the present participle “being” with the past participle “built”. At present the battle rages about the split infinitive, which horrifies the old-fashioned grammarians, but is more dispassionately regarded by linguists of the modern school.
In addition to phrases of this kind, in which the laws of grammar seem to be openly flouted, many slighter anomalies are to be found in the idiomatic speech. Most of the idioms come from the popular vernacular which still preserves that grammatical freedom which was a characteristic of the older history of the language. Thus, in idioms, as in Elizabethan English, almost any part of speech can take the place and perform the function of any other part. The transformation of adjectives and nouns into verbs is a normal process in speech. In many idioms adverbs and preposition appear as nouns (whys and wherefores, ups and downs, ins and outs), preposition change into verbs (to out with, to up and) the verbs into nouns (on the go, in the know).Sometimes a passive meaning attaches to an active tense: much to seek.
Ellipsis is another characteristic of idiom; all constantly repeated adverbial phrases like “last night”, “this week” tend to lose their prepositions. In some like “no doubt” and “no wonder” the verb is omitted. In others like “at best”, “at least” the definite article drops out. Words like “to-day”, “to-night”, “to-morrow”, “o’clock” are terse idiomatic phrases which, owing to their constant use, have come to be regarded and pronounced as compound words.
One curious characteristic of many of the commonest idioms is the survival in them of obsolete words, words which are never used except in some special phrases. Examples of such words are: hue and cry, rank and file, to chop and change, to leave in the lurch, to take the toils, at bay, at beck and call, at loggerheads, not a whit, a pig in a poke.
In the phrases spick and span, tit for tat, jot or tittle two words which are meaningless by themselves combine together into idioms which everybody understands. In other phrases, archaic and poetic words which otherwise would never pass our lips are preserved in the colloquial speech: hither and thither, to and fro, use and wont, rack and ruin, a great deal, for the sake of.
Many obsolete meanings of familiar words are preserved in idiomatic phrases. “Mind” once meant “memory” and this meaning survives in the phrases to keep in mind, to call to mind, out of mind. It also had the signification of purpose or intention, which survives in the phrases to be of two minds, to know one’s own mind, to change one’s mind. The word “blush” preserves in the phrases at first blush the meaning of “glimpse” or “sight”; “pain” used to mean “punishment”, also “trouble”, “effort”. These meanings live on in the phrases like: pains and penalties, under the pain of death, to be at the pains to, to get for one’s pains. The word “brown” preserves its old meaning of “gloomy” in the phrase a brown study. The meaning of the idiom by degrees comes from the old use of degree for “step”. A few archaic grammatical forms like bounden duty, on bended knee also survive in idiom.
The second type of idioms, of logical anomalies, will be further discussed in Chapter IV: Types of Idioms. Classification
CHAPTER 4: TYPES OF IDIOMS. CLASSIFICATION
4.1. Grammatical Idioms
Idioms are “those phrases which are verbal anomalies, which transgress either the laws of grammar or the laws of logic”. Many idioms have two meanings, a literal and an idiomatic one, for example: to kick the bucket, to go to the country, to pull one’s leg. In such cases, only the context can give a clue as to which meaning is intended. In other cases, when a literal meaning does not make sense in terms of the world as we know it, the likelihood is that we are dealing with an idiom. This applies to to jump down someone’s throat, to fly off the handle, to rain cats and dogs. The same conclusion should suggest itself when an expression is formed in a way that is contrary to the syntactic rules of contemporary English, as in the definite articles in to kick the bucket and to fly off the handle or “one” in to pull a fast one. The definite article normally has the function of indicating that an item has already been mentioned or is considered unique in the context to the language community, while the pro-form “one” refers to a noun that must precede it. Neither of these conditions is fulfilled in the idioms cited.
More often idioms have been categorized from the point of view of grammar, according to their part of speech. We shall have:
Phrasal Verbs with Idiomatic Meaning:
Idioms of this type fall into three categories as follows:
verb followed by an adverbial particle:
a) used transitively the structure is: verb + direct object + particle:
E.g. The news got my mother down.
or verb + particle + direct object:
E.g. The news got down my mother.
b) intransitively the structure is: verb + particle:
E.g. He got down and approached us.
verb followed by an adverbial particle and a preposition:
a) used transitively the structure is: verb + object + particle + preposition +
prepositional object:
E.g. There is no need to take your resentment out on me.
or verb + particle + object +preposition + prepositional object:
E.g. There is no need to take out your resentment on me.
b) used intransitively: verb + particle + preposition + prepositional object:
E.g. You must face up the truth.
verb followed by a preposition:
a) used transitively: verb + object + preposition + prepositional object:
E.g. He got the child down the ladder.
b) used intransitively: verb + preposition + prepositional object:
E.g. He got down the ladder.
We would like to add some remarks on this type of idioms:
1. Phrasal verbs cannot be separated by adverbs. We can say either: He put on his coat quickly or He quickly put on his coat.
2. Some phrasal verbs can be used with certain classes of object, for example: to throw something away, to call someone up.
3. Some phrasal verbs have different meanings with different classes of object. For example: to take clothes off means to remove, to undress while to take people off means to imitate, to mock.
4. Some particles are used with constant meaning. “Up” often implies completely.
E.g. He ate up his dinner.
With add, break, burn, chew, clean, count, drink, eat, tear, wash “down” often implies to the ground.
to drop by = to pay a casual visit;
E.g. I promised James to drop by if I had time and I was in the neighborhood.
to fall for something = 1. to like something very much;
E.g. I do not know what happens, but you always fall for the most expensive clothes when you go shopping.
2. to be tricked into believing something;
E.g. I wish my husband would not fall for all this sales talk. He has just spend a fortune for a useless thing.
to give something away = 1. to distribute something free of charge;
E.g. Unfortunately, she put on too much weight and she did not fit in her clothes anymore, so she decided to give them away.
2. to betray something;
E.g. After she confessed the terrible mistake she made, she asked me not to give her secret away.
to look down on someone =to regard someone as inferior;
E.g. Edward is a snob who looks down on people with a working – class background.
to put up with someone/ something = to tolerate/bear something;
E.g. As she could not put up with his behavior anymore, she decided to leave him and get the divorce.
4.1.2. Verbal Idioms or Verb-Noun Combinations:
Nouns used idiomatically in verb – noun combinations often have a plural as well as singular form: to run an errand or to run errands.
E.g. Paul often runs errands for his mother, like posting letters and buying groceries.
In some verb – noun combinations both verb and noun are used idiomatically: to take heart, to lose heart.
E.g. He has a weak nature. He loses heart whenever things go wrong.
to cook the books = to change a firm’s accounts or records to one’s own advantage, often to take money out unnoticed;
E.g. Apparently, he had been cooking the company’s books for years to meet his gambling losses.
to mind one’s own business = not to interfere in the affairs of others;
E.g. Jim asked me how much I earned, so I told him to mind his own business.
to face the music = to meet the consequences (bad) of some action;
E.g. In your situation, it is better to apologize and face the music than pretend that nothing happened.
to get the sack = to be dismissed;
E.g. The manager warned the employees that if they kept being late for the office, they would get the sack.
to make one’s point = to present options convincingly;
E.g. Although there was a short presentation of the problem, the director made his point.
4.1.3. Verb-Noun-Preposition Combinations:
Idioms of this type take an object: to set fire to something, to take pity on someone. In most of the idioms the noun keeps its literal meaning and only the verb and preposition are used idiomatically: to play tricks on someone, to take pride on something, but occasionally the noun is used idiomatically: to give rise to something, to take exception to someone/something. There are two kinds of idioms of this type: invariable and variable. Variable idioms are: to play a trick/tricks on; to have an effect/effects on; to bear the cost/costs of; to bear the grudge/grudges against.
to pick holes in something = to criticize something or find fault with something unnecessarily;
E.g. It is easy to pick holes in my method of teaching the students, but you can suggest a better way of doing it?
to turn tables on someone = to reverse the situation so that one’s rival/opponent loses his advantage and becomes weaker;
E.g. Do not lose hope, you can still turn the tables on you, the evaluation is only on Saturday.
to make fun of something/someone = to mock or tease;
E.g. His colleagues used to make fun of him because his ears stuck.
to throw the book at someone = to reprimand someone for not having done something the correct or official way;
E.g. This time he threw the book at me for not showing him the report before I send it to head office. Usually, he does not want the trouble of having to read them.
to get the hang of something = to find out or understand how best to do something that requires physical or mental ability;
E.g. Driving may be difficult in the beginning, but once you have got the hang of it, you will find it more comfortable than walking or taking the bus.
4.1.4. Verb-Preposition Combinations:
This category of idioms resembles the phrasal verbs, but it is different. Intransitive verbs can be linked to noun objects by specific prepositions:
E.g. I am going to the station.
In this example, the preposition is used literally like in many other cases. But prepositions can also be used idiomatically:
E.g. I depend on my parents for the time being.
The most common intransitive verbs followed by specific prepositions are: to abound in, to approve of, to begin with, to belong to, to beware of, to care for, to confess to, to consist of, to differ from, to hope for, to insist on, to interfere with, to laugh at, to listen to, to refer to, to send for, to shout at, to vote for, to wait for.
E.g. She says she does not believe in astrology, but she always glances at her horoscope.
This argument can only result in a fight, so we had better change the subject.
When you are in a city and do not know how to get to a place, it is better to ask for directions than wander in the streets.
The accident was so terrible that she never recovered from the shock.
The last task of the exam required that the students should comment on a literary fragment.
All transitive verbs have a direct object and many can be linked to a second noun object by a preposition. Here is a list of common transitive verbs followed by specific prepositions: to arrest someone for something, to beat someone at something, to borrow something from someone, to challenge someone to something, to charge someone for something, to congratulate someone on something, to forgive someone for something, to help someone with something, to impose something on someone, to invite someone to something, to lend something to someone, to praise someone for something, to rescue someone from something, to respect someone for something, to rob someone of something, to spoil something for someone.
E.g. Everybody was aware he was lying in the trial and finally the judge accused him of perjury.
There is no need to find excuses. I have no blamed you for anything.
I was wasting my time trying to convince him of the uselessness of his efforts.
If he had known they would suspect him of plotting against them, he would never deal with them.
“My dear, I think we could have a civilized talk instead of throwing objects at me”, said the husband to the angry wife during an argument.
Some intransitive verbs may be linked to several different nouns by specific prepositions:
E.g. Of course we cannot go on like this. You do not agree with me about a single issue.
I shall speak to you no more until you apologize to me for hurting my feelings.
Nobody is happy to work overtime, but if you complain to the boss about it, you will only make matters worse.
You can quarrel with me about this matter until you are blue in the face because this time I am determined to do things my way.
There is another type of expressions from this category, based on verbs and which are common and one can expect to hear them in natural, everyday conversation:
to come true = to happen in fact;
E.g. If all dreams come true, people would be better and happier.
to jump to conclusions = to draw hasty conclusions without knowing all the circumstances;
E.g. “Do not jump to conclusions! I came into your room to open the window, not to search it.”
to give someone a ring = to telephone someone;
E.g. He promised to give us a ring as soon as he got there, but he never kept his promise.
to stir up trouble = to cause trouble;
E.g. Julie likes to stir up trouble. Yesterday she told my sister she had seen her fiance kissing another girl.
to go blind = to lose one’s sight;
E.g. The doctor advised him to watch TV from further distance and not spend so much time in front of the computer unless he wanted to go blind.
4.1.5. Prepositional Idioms:
Prepositional usage in all languages contains much that is peculiar and arbitrary, the relations to be expressed by prepositions are often so vague and indefinite, that many times one might seem logically just as right as another, and it is only “that tyrannical, capricious, utterly incalculable thing, idiomatic usage which has decreed that this preposition must be used in this case, and that in another”.
A few instances will illustrate the arbitrary character of English use of prepositions; we tamper with, but we tinker at; we find fault in a person, but we find fault with him, we act on the spur of the moment, but at a moment’s notice; we are insensible to, but are unconscious of; we say for long, but at length-not at long, although “at long” was once an English idiom. So we now say on earth, when in earth was the older usage, as we see in the Lord’s Prayer: “Thy will be done in earth, as it is in Heaven”.
Prepositional usage not only varies from age to age, but it is also different in different classes, and also in the various countries where English is spoken. Thus, the choice between in a ship or on a ship is a difference between sea – and land – usage. In America, they speak of getting on or off a train, in England of getting in or out of it; up to time is the English idiom, on time the American. The difference is one of usage; either is correct from the point of view of grammar.
Prepositional idioms fall into several categories as follows:
Preposition-Noun Combination:
In this case prepositions are used idiomatically: in cash, under consideration, at fault, on fire, by hand, in person, on schedule, on strike, in theory.
out of place = inappropriate (a remark);
E.g. His remarks about archaeologists, wasting the country’s money, were quite out of place.
on the rocks = in a critical state, in a serious trouble, failing;
E.g. Their company has been on the rocks before, but it always survives.
against all odds = in spite of great opposition or disadvantages;
E.g. Mason knew that in trying to save the company from ruin, he was fighting a losing battle, but he carried on against all odds.
to the letter =exact in every detail;
E.g. We carried out your instructions to the letter, but we could not find the error in the programme.
by chance = unintentionally or unexpectedly;
E.g. I did not know Judith was spending her holiday at the seaside, so I met her by chance on the beach.
Preposition-Adjective-Noun Combinations:
in the long run = over a long period;
E.g. for now you are comfortable with temporary jobs, but what will happen in the long run when you have got married and had a family to support?
on thin ice = in a dangerous, precarious position or situation;
E.g. Remember that we are on thin ice with the maintenance contract. One wrong move and we lose it.
behind closed doors = in private; without the press or members of the public being present;
E.g. The preliminary hearing of the case was behind closed doors.
in hot water = in trouble; facing punishment;
E.g. You will be in hot water when your mother finds out you have knocked the heads off her nicest roses.
at short notice = with little advance learning;
E.g. I am afraid nobody could have done the report on such short notice. You know, Rome was not built in one day.
Preposition-Noun-Preposition Combinations:
Idioms in this category are followed by a noun or gerund, except “in order to”, which is followed by a verb.
in spite of = despite;
E.g. Dave was determined not to give up when he was so close to his dream in spite of all difficulties.
in touch with = communicating/able to communicate with;
E.g. I wish I could give you the information, but I have not been in touch with Madeleine for years and I do not know where she lives now.
in return for = as compensation for;
E.g. She thanked him with tears in her eyes and asked him what she could do in return for his great kindness.
on account of = because of;
E.g. The employees of the factory decided for the strike on account of the low wages.
on behalf of =as a representative of;
E.g. Before accepting to speak on behalf of all new employees, Mark made sure he knew all their requests and proposals.
4.1.6. Adjectival Idioms:
This kind of idioms are in the fact adjective-preposition combinations: afraid of, anxious about, aware of, capable of, close to, different from, faithful to, glad of, kind to, proud of, ready for, similar to, sorry for, superior to, useful to, worthy of.
Many adjectives are derived from past participles: broken, lost surprised. When they are used as participles, they are followed by the preposition “by”.
E.g. I was surprised by the news.
As adjectives, they are followed by various prepositions:
E.g. I was surprised at his behavior.
Here is a list of adjectives derived from particles: accustomed to, addicted to, alarmed at, ashamed of, based on, covered with, interested in, satisfied with, shocked at, surprised at. Many adjectives are used in more than one adjective-preposition combination.
E.g. made of: This clock is made of brass.
made from: Brass is made from copper and zinc.
concerned about: I am concerned about your help.
concerned for: I am concerned for your safety.
engaged to: My sister is engaged to the boy who lives next door.
engaged in: she is engaged in medical research.
annoyed at: I was annoyed at his stupidity.
annoyed with: I was annoyed with him.
angry with: He was angry with me.
angry at: He was angry at my laziness.
familiar to: this place is familiar to me.
familiar with: I am familiar with this place.
grateful to: I am grateful to you.
grateful for: I am grateful for all your help.
Adjectives with similar meanings are often followed by the same prepositions:
E.g. surprised at, amazed at, astonished at, startled at.
Attention should be paid to adjective-preposition combinations so as not to be confused with the passive forms of verbs followed by specific prepositions:
E.g. Children are prohibited from smoking.
4.1.7. Noun Phrases:
Such idioms are usually derived from metaphors:
a drop in the ocean = a very small amount (in comparison to another very large amount);
E.g. Mr. O’Neill donated two hundred pounds to our hospital charity. A very generous donation, but unfortunately only a drop in the ocean-we need half a million.
a home from home = a place at which one feels very welcome, happy and comfortable, as in one’s own home;
E.g. We enjoyed visiting Aunt Maud and Uncle Leonard. They are just like my parents, so their house is a home from home.
the law of the jungle = the principle that the strongest and most unscrupulous will survive and do well in a competitive situation;
E.g. It is all very well having a degree in business administration, but you don’t learn the law of the jungle at university.
pie in the sky = a promise of better things that is unlikely to be fulfilled;
E.g. When the Prime Minister talks about reducing unemployment by fifty per cent within three months, everyone knows it is only pie in the sky.
the writing in the wall = an event or indication which points to impending dangers, misfortune or difficulty; a warning of bad things to come;
E.g. The sleep drop in sales orders was recognized as the writing in the wall. The firm immediately began to diversify.
4.1.8. Idiomatic Pairs:
a) Pairs of opposites indicate lack of precision: more or less = approximately; sooner or later = eventually; now and then = occasionally; inside-out = with the inside facing outwards; upside-down = in the wrong side up.
b) Pairs of identical words indicate either repetition or gradual change: on and on = continuously; over and over again = repeatedly; step by step = gradually (in stages); word for word = exactly; face to face = confronting.
c) Pairs of similar words joined by “and” come from lyrical or semantic similarities: safe and sound = safe and without damage or injury; fair and square = fair and honest; up and about = out of bed and active; by and large = generally speaking; wear and tear = damage from ordinary use.
From the point of view of grammar, idiomatic pairs fall into:
Pairs of adjectives:
alive and kicking = well and active;
E.g. I had a letter from Rod. He’s still very much alive and kicking, working on an Australian sheep farm.
cut and dried = settled, decided, final (arrangements, plans, opinions etc.)
E.g. Our holiday arrangements are all cut and dried. We are going to Crete for the last two weeks in August.
free and easy = casual, relaxed; unconcerned about social convention;
E.g. I hope it won’t be formal dress for dinner in the hotel – I like to be free and easy when I am on holiday.
safe and sound = unharmed;
E.g. after his three months’ trip on foot through Africa, our son is glad to be back home safe and sound.
slow but sure = slow but good;
E.g. He does not rush things. He is a slow but sure worker and the end product is always worth waiting for.
Pairs of nouns:
body and soul = physical and mental energy;
E.g. Bob puts body and soul into his community work. He loves every minute of it.
one’s bread and butter = one’s means of earning money/making a living;
E.g. He only paints for pleasure. He earns his bread and butter as a photographer.
ifs and buts = excuses;
E.g. No ifs and buts, just do the work and tell me when it is finished.
the ins and outs = intricate details often difficult to explain and understand;
E.g. These ins and outs of the British parliamentary system are often difficult for foreigners to understand.
touch and go = critical, close to both success and failure, life and death etc.;
E.g. Greg is in a critical state after the accident. They say it is touch and go.
Pairs of adverbs:
here, there and everywhere = in many different places;
E.g. “Could this bag belong to Roger?” “Oh, yes, quite possibly. He leaves his stuff here, there and everywhere.”
in and out = coming in and going out several times;
E.g. Colin wants to speak to you. He has been in and out all morning looking to see if you were in your office.
loud and clear = very clearly;
E.g. “It is a bad telephone line. Can you hear me?” “Yes, loud and clear!”
more or less = approximately, roughly; practically;
E.g. “Is this the sort of design you were thinking of?” “Yes, more or less”.
to and fro = one way and then the other, up and down;
E.g. That poor man is very nervous, he has been walking to and fro in the corridor for and hour. His wife is expecting twins!
Pairs of verbs:
do or die = to make the greatest possible effort, or fail. Used when referring to a final attempt or to a one-and-only opportunity;
E.g. Colin is taking a university entrance exam tomorrow. He knows it is do or die, so he has been working very hard.
forgive and forget = to be prepared to be reconciled; to forget enmity; E.g. This is the second time you have cheated Jim. I don’t think he will be prepared to forgive and forget again this time.
you live and learn = to become wiser, to gain more experience with age;
E.g. I trusted John and he cheated me. But you live and learn. I won’t be so trusting with strangers next time.
toss and turn = not sleep peacefully, because of worry etc.;
E.g. Eric very is worried about his business. Joan says he tosses and turns for hours before he can get to sleep.
wait and see = to wait patiently;
E.g. It is too early to say whether or not the plan will work. We will just have to wait and see.
Identical pairs made up of adverbs, nouns and prepositions:
again and again = repeatedly;
E.g. I have told Henry again and again that he should not smoke so much. He has a dreadful cough.
blow by blow = (when giving an account of something) including all the details, events etc. in order;
E.g. Sarah gave me a detailed account of the argument with her landlady-blow by blow.
by and by = as time goes by; in the course of time;
E.g. By and by, I came to realize that my decision to leave home and go to work abroad had been the right one after all.
from door to door = going to all the houses in a street/in the area;
E.g. There are some children going from door to door, collecting for the Boys Scouts.
on the up-and-up = improving (e.g. one’s health, general situation);
E.g. “How’s business these days?” “On the up-and-up at last, thanks.”
4.1.9. Another category of idioms could be that of comparisons. Comparisons can be of three types:
Comparisons with as…as:
as blind as a bat = having bad eyesight;
E.g. Grandfather is as blind as a bat. You should read him the letter if you want him to know the bad news.
as light as a feather = having little weight, not heavy;
E.g. After a drastic diet, she felt as light as a feather as she has never been in years.
as quiet as a mouse = reserved and shy by nature; making no noise;
E.g. I promise I shall not disturb you. I shall be as quiet as a mouse while you are reading that book.
as right as rain = as healthy as one usually is; in one’s best emotional and physical condition;
E.g. I was as right as rain on Wednesday, then the next day I was in bed and I could hardly move. It is terrible this flue.
as steady as a rock = reliable (e.g. in an emergency); firm and standing safely on the ground (e.g. a ladder);
E.g. This ladder is as steady as a rock. You can safely climb and pick up those beautiful fruits.
Comparisons with like:
(to be) like a bull in a china shop = in a clumsy, rough manner; without the necessary fine feeling for the delicacy of a particular situation;
E.g. Do not tell uncle John about Sally’s misfortune, or he will mention it when he sees her. You know he is completely tactless-like a bull in a china shop.
to drink like a fish = to drink large quantities of alcohol, especially beer;
E.g. If you have ever been in a pub with Harry, you will know that he drinks like a fish.
to eat like a horse = to have a healthy appetite and eat large quantities;
E.g. Fred is trying to lose a few pounds. He goes jogging for an hour every evening but when he comes home he eats like a horse.
to fight like a cat and dog = to disagree or argue violently, often repeatedly;
E.g. Mary and Oliver have a very emotional relationship. They sometimes fight like cat and dog, but they are really very close.
to go like the wind = to move very fast and smoothly, e.g. a car, a fast runner;
E.g. Richard is sure to win the 800 meters. When he is on form, he can go like the wind.
Comparisons which emphasize or exaggerate:
pitch black = very dark;
E.g. It is pitch black in here. I cannot see a thing. Please switch the light on.
stone deaf = completely deaf;
E.g. If you keep listening to music so loud, you will be stone deaf by the time you are twenty.
stone cold sober = not drunk;
E.g. it cannot possibly have been George who was singing and dancing all night-he was stone cold sober.
soaking wet = very wet;
E.g. We had to walk home in the rain, so it was not surprising that we were soaking wet by the time we got home.
dirt cheap = very cheap;
E.g. this car is dirt cheap. If I were you, you should buy it immediately before the owner changes his mind.
4.1.10. Another type of idioms is that of grammatical and linguistic anomalies, namely idiomatic metaphors, phrases in which “more is meant that meets the ear” and in this case, the meaning conveyed is other than the meaning of the words which compose it, locutions which, if literally translated into another language, would have a different signification or sound like nonsense.
The way in which words take on metaphorical meaning is one of the best-known of linguistic phenomena. Figurative idioms are constantly being invented. Some find a place for a while in the jargon of families or social groups and are then forgotten – only one out of many thousands is added to the general vocabulary. Often these figurative idioms are more or less transparent. To sail too near the wind, to keep one’s head above the water, to be left stranded are lively metaphors from the speech of sailors, of which the original significations are sufficiently clear. But many of the most current idiomatic phrases people use with little or no consciousness of their original use and signification. The meaning of the military idiom to pass muster or the origin of the phrase to burn the candle at both ends might be more or less familiar to speakers of English, but probably only a special student could explain phrases like: to hold at bay (to prevent someone or something from attacking or harming you in some way), to curry favour (to try to make someone like you or notice you by saying nice things about them or doing something for them), to leave in the lurch (to leave someone without any help or support at a time when you should stay and help him), to run riot (to be totally free and cannot be controlled) etc. Indeed, there are a number of idiomatic phrases for which even specialists have not been able to find a completely certain explanation, as for instance: to go the whole hog (to do something in the most complete and thorough way possible), to pull someone’s leg (to tell someone something that is not true, as a joke), to send to Coventry (to stop talking to someone because one disapproves of something he or she has done). Equally obscure are the phrases: by hook or by crook (used in order to say that someone is determined to do something even if it is difficult, using whatever methods he can), to pay on the nail (to pay for something immediately and with money).
The expressiveness of irrelevant phrases is a curious feature of many English idioms and it seems to show that there is a certain irrelevance in the human mind, a certain love for the illogical and absurd, a reluctance to submit itself to reason, which breaks loose now and then and finds expressions for itself in idiomatic speech.
Characteristics of idioms derived from metaphors, from the point of view of grammar:
1. Most of these expressions belong to informal spoken English rather than to formal written English.
2. Metaphorical meaning and certain kinds of invariableness are related to each other. As an example we chose two well-known phrases: to give up the ghost and to spill the beans, meaning “to die” and “to reveal something, to make something known”. These meanings differ from the literal meanings of the words in the phrases and words that are close in meaning in these phrases can hardly be substituted. The man gave up the ghost means “the man died”, but a substitution, such as “The man gave up the apparition”or “The man released the ghost”, tends to make the phrase literal and the idiomatic meaning is lost. One cannot make even simpler substitutions. For example, a noun may be replaced by a pronoun in a literal sentence, but this cannot be usually done in an idiom without loss of idiomatic meaning. One might say, literally, “He split the beans on the floor” and “He opened the tin of beans and split them on the floor”. One may use the idiom in a sentence like He split the beans (revealed the secret) over my plans to find a new job, but one cannot say “He split them over my plans to find a new job”. The reason that pronouns often cannot be substituted for nouns in idiomatic phrases is that the meaning of the phrase as a whole has become idiomatic. Thus, the noun “beans” cannot be treated as a single word that can be replaced by any equivalent word or pronoun. Pronouns do occur in idiomatic phrases, of course, especially pronoun “it” (e.g. snuff it = to die). Such phrases with pronouns are idioms in their own right.
3. Grammatical operations, such as the formation of the passive, are impossible to make. Both give up the ghost and spill the beans are verb phrases consisting of transitive verbs (give up, spill) followed by direct objects (ghost, beans). Normally, a transitive verb phrase can be changed to a passive, but in this case, it is not possible. It would sound quite unnatural to say “At three o’clock the ghost was given up by the man”. Besides, no other changes can be made without losing the idiomatic meaning.
4. Although metaphorical meaning and invariability characterize some idioms, these are very broad and general characteristics. Idioms vary a great deal in how metaphorical or invariable they are. The quality of being idiomatic, or idiomacity, remains a matter of degree or scale. Thus, some of the phrases may be used in a literal context or idiomatically, whereas other phrases have no literal meaning and may only be used as idioms, e.g. until kingdom come. Some idioms display a limited number of variants: e.g. up to the/one’s ears/eyes/neck/eyeballs (wholly concerned with something) or in someone’s black books (in disfavor with someone), which has one variant expressing the opposite meaning, in someone’s good books.
to break the news = to tell someone news which will affect him personally in a good or bad way;
E.g. I have crushed Steven’s car, but I have not broken the news to him yet.
to burn the midnight oil =to work or study until late into the night;
E.g. Peter is graduating from college next month, so he will be burning the midnight oil quite often.
to make oneself scarce = to go away or keep out of sight so as not to be discovered or because it is tactful to do so;
E.g. When the headmaster appeared, the boys who had broken the window quickly made themselves scarce.
to wash one’s dirty linen in public = to reveal private or family secrets, scandals publicly;
E.g. We must not allow this matter to be taken to court. The last thing we want to do is wash our dirty linen in public.
to curry favor with someone = to try to win favor by flattery;
E.g. It is no use trying to curry favour with Miss Marshall by bringing her flowers. She only appreciates hard work.
Another classification of English idioms could be made by using key-words from special categories. This criterion was applied by Jennifer Seidl and William McMordie in the “Oxford Pocket English Dictionary”.
4.2. Idioms with Animals:
a dog tired person = an exhausted person;
E.g. He has run this company for ten years now and he never complained to be a dog tired person.
to pull a rabbit out of the hat = to find or obtain a sudden solution to a problem;
E.g. Unless somebody pulls a rabbit out of the hat by next week, we’ll be bankrupt.
to have bats in one’s belfry = to have crazy ideas; be very peculiar, erratic or foolish;
E.g. If you think you can row across the ocean in that tiny boat, you have bats in your belfry.
the cat gets one’s tongue = can’t talk;
E.g. I think that the cat has got her tongue. She hasn’t said anything at all since the meeting started.
duck soup = easy; effortless;
E.g. How was the test last week? It was duck soup, no problem at all.
Idioms Based on Capital Letters:
the three R’s = reading, writing and arithmetic, thought, of as the most necessary parts of a basic education;
E.g. It is often said that modern education spends too much time on unimportant activities and not enough on the three R’s.
from A to Z = very thoroughly and completely;
E.g. He has studied the subject of the book from A to Z.
ABC = the simplest and the most basic knowledge;
E.g. This book gives you the ABC of engineering.
to a T = perfectly, exactly;
E.g. That new suit fits you to a T.
on the Q.T. = secretly, without anyone knowing;
E.g. I don’t want anyone to know about my plans so let’s go over them on the Q.T.
to mind one’s P’s and Q’s = to be very careful about what one does or says;
E.g. You should mind your P’s and Q’s and not say anything to offend your aunt.
4.4. Business Idioms:
banker’s hours = short work hours;
E.g. My sister’s husband is the head of the company and he is able to work banker’s hours with his large staff.
company man = a person who always works hard and agrees with his employees;
E.g. My father was a true company man and was always putting in an extra effort for his company.
company town = a town dominated by one industry;
E.g. When the coal mine closed down the company town faced severe economic times.
sweetheart deal = a deal made between friends so that both may make a big profit;
E.g. We were able to make a sweetheart deal with our landlord and got the rent consistently reduced.
to sell like hotcakes = to sell very fast;
E.g. The children’s toys were selling like hotcakes at the end of the year.
4.5. Idioms with Colours:
4.5.1. Black:
black market = illegal trade;
E.g. In most countries goods that are scarce are usually freely available on the black market provided you have the money to pay for them.
black-eye = an eye injury that causes the skin to turn black;
E.g. “How’d you get the black eye?” “Fighting in a hockey game.”
to be in the black = to have money in one’s bank account, to be in credit;
E.g. The company was still in the black, but it would probably have to make job cuts.
as black as pitch = very dark;
E.g. It was pouring with rain, and the night was as black as pitch.
black and blue = having bruises on the body after an accident, fight etc.;
E.g. Poor Liz took a few falls on her skiing holiday – she is black and blue all over.
two blacks don’t make a white = even if someone else has behaved badly in doing you an injury etc, you will only make things worse if you also behave badly;
E.g. Two blacks don’t make a white! I won’t pay him back the slap he gave me.
4.5.2. Blue:
blue blood = aristocratic ancestry;
E.g. They may be poor, but they have blue blood in their family.
the blues = low spirits, depression;
E.g. He’s got the blues today but he’s usually cheerful.
to scream/yell blue murder = to make a great deal of noise and protest;
E.g. Every time the child was put to bed he screamed blue murder.
true blue = unchangingly faithful and loyal;
E.g. You can rely on Michael – he’s true blue.
a blue – eyed boy = someone who is a favorite;
E.g. He will get promotion – he is the boss’s blue – eyed boy.
to make the air turn blue = to swear strongly and at someone length;
E.g. He fairly made the air turn blue when he hit his finger with the hammer!
4.5.3. Green:
grass is always greener on the other side of the fence = a place seems better that what we have or where we are;
E.g. She is always moving or changing jobs as she thinks that the grass is always greener on the other side.
green belt = an area of woods, parks or open land surrounding a community;
E.g. You will not get permission to built houses in that area – it is a green area.
to give somebody the green light = to give permission
E.g. He has given the green light to begin work on the new housing plan.
green stuff = dollars, money;
E.g. In those days we had plenty of green stuff, so I bought a Lexus.
green thumb = good gardener, naturally good with plants;
E.g. Willie is the green thumb in our group. He is the gardener.
green with envy = full of envy, jealous;
E.g. When I saw him in a new sports car, I was green with envy.
4.5.4.Gray:
to go/turn gray = to become gray-haired;
E.g. When Wilson heard that 55% of his company’s shares had been bought up by his rival, he turned gray overnight.
gray matter = one’s brain, intelligence, powers of reasoning etc.
E.g. I’ve got a mathematical problem for you to use your gray matter on.
4.5.5. Pink:
the pink of perfection = absolutely perfect;
E.g. Everything in her house is always in the pink of perfection – she spends her whole life planning and arranging it.
to look at the world through rose-colored glasses = to see only the good things about something, be too optimistic;
E.g. I told him not to be so naïve and always look at the world through rose – coloured glasses.
to be tickled pink = to be very pleased (by something);
E.g. He was tickled pink when she asked him for his autograph.
in the pink (of health) = very well, in good health;
E.g. I’ve been ill for a few weeks but I feel in the pink now.
4.5.6. Red:
red tape = complicated official rules and regulations, excessive bureaucracy ;
E.g. There was much red tape when we requested a business license.
red letter day = a day that is memorable because of some important event;
E.g. Saturday was a red letter day when we finally won the championship.
to roll out the red carpet = to greet and entertain someone;
E.g. Whenever I drop by my aunt’s in Chicago she rolls out the red carpet for me.
to roll out the red carpet = to welcome an important guest by putting a red carpet down for him or her to walk on;
E.g. They rolled out the red carpet for the Oscar ceremony.
4.5.7.White:
white lie = a small lie, a fib;
E.g. “You said you were 39, not 40.” “Yes, I told a white lie.”
white elephant = a purchase that was not used, a useless object;
E.g. Should we take the statue of Stalin to the White Elephant Sale?
in black and white = written and signed, in writing;
E.g. If they say the car is guaranteed, get it down in black and white.
white knuckles = a tense feeling, acute worry;
E.g. Driving through fog is scary – it’s white knuckles all the way.
as white as a sheet = very pale;
E.g. He was as white as a sheet after the accident, so nobody could recognize him exactly.
to show the white feather = to show signs of cowardice;
E.g. He refused to join the protest, and the others accused him of showing the white feather.
4.5.8.Yellow:
yellow-bellied = extremely timid, cowardly;
E.g. He is a yellow – bellied person..
yellow streak = cowardice in a person’s character;
E.g. He has a real yellow streak and not good to have as a friend.
yellow press = newspapers that deliberately include material that is exciting or shocking in order to attract readers;
E.g. Yellow press makes use of its power to present us a series of events real or not, only for the sake of sensation.
yellow line = a space were you are not allowed to park;
E.g. I think you should move the car because there is a yellow line here.
4.6. Idioms with Human Feelings:
4.6.1. Envy:
to be the envy of (someone) = to be envied by (someone);
E.g. Her piano-playing was the envy of her sisters.
4.6.2. Fear:
no fear = not likely;
E.g.”Are you thinking of getting married?” “No fear, I like being a bachelor.”
to put the fear of death / God into (someone) = to terrify (someone);
E.g. He is an appalling driver, and driving with him puts the fear of God into me.
to strike fear into (someone) = to fill (a person) with fear, etc.;
E.g. Sound of lightening stuck terror into their hearts.
there is not much fear of something = it is not likely that (something will happen);
E.g. There is not much fear of him leaving the firm, I’m sorry to say.
4.6.3. Joy:
to be (someone’s) pride and joy = to be the object of the pride of (someone);
E.g. The little boy was his parent’s pride and joy.
no joy = no luck, news, information etc.;
E.g. The police have been searching for the child for two days, and no joy.
to wish (someone) joy of (something) = to wish that (something) will be a pleasure or advantage to someone;
E.g. You can take this horrible plant away, I wish you joy of it.
4.6.4. Love:
for the love of Mike = of expression of exasperation or surprise;
E.g. For the love of Mike, will you sit down and stop pacing up and down the room!
(originally, an Irishism)
not for the love or money = not in any way at all;
E.g. We couldn’t get a taxi not for love or money last night after the concert.
there’s no love lost between them = they dislike one another;
E.g. It’s no use, there’s no love lost between them after fifteen years of marriage.
(originally. It meant exactly the opposite – the shift in meaning is unexplained)
4.6.5. Pleasure:
to have had the pleasure (of meeting) = to have been introduced to;
E.g. “Have you met Mrs. Jones?” “No, I have not had the pleasure.”
– to take pleasure in = to get enjoyment from doing (something);
E.g. He takes pleasure in reading aloud to his children.
4.6.6. Respect:
to be no respecter of persons = not to be influenced by the importance, wealth etc. of the people involved;
E.g. Old age is no respecter of persons, even millionaires cannot stay young for ever.
in respect of (something) = as far as (something) is concerned;
E.g. This report is fine in respect of information but the spelling is dreadful.
to pay one’s respects (to someone) = to visit (someone) as a sign of respect to him;
E.g. I’ve come to pay my respects to your father.
with respect to something = about or concerning (something);
E.g. With respect to your request, we regret that we are unable to assist you in this matter.
4.6.7. Sorrow:
more in sorrow than in anger = more disappointed and unhappy than angry (at someone’s bad behaviour, etc.);
E.g. The headmaster told her, more in sorrow than in anger, that she was a disgrace to the entire school and he felt he had to teach her right from wrong.
to drown one’s sorrows = to take an alcoholic drink in order to forget a disappointment etc.;
E.g. Ah well, since neither of us won the competition, let’s go and drown our sorrows together.
4.7. Idioms with Numbers:
to have one over the eight = to have too much to drink;
E.g. As soon as John arrived, it was obvious that he already had one over the eight.
to be in two minds about something = to be undecided;
E.g. Jenny says she is still in two minds about going to Jeff’s engagement party. On one hand, she wants to show him there are no hard feelings, but on the other, her presence might embarrass Mary.
(the) third degree = detailed questioning;
E.g. His mother gave him the third degree when he came home late last night.
to the ninth degree = to the greatest degree possible;
E.g. They made an effort to the ninth degree but were unable to successfully complete the project.
two-faced = untrustworthy;
E.g. He is two-faced and therefore can never be trusted.
forty winks = a short sleep during the day (not usually in bed);
E.g. Julia never sleeps in the afternoon. She likes only to take forty winks in her chair.
at sixes and sevens = in a state of confusion, disorder;
E.g. We moved into the house last week, so everything is at sixes and sevens.
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