Triumph Of The Nerds Information Technology Essay
Knowing the history of computers can help us understand that how complicated and innovative the creation of computers really is. Computer does not have one inventor instead many clever scientist contributed to the development of advance computers in their era. Today’s modern computers are the result of continuous efforts of many scientists in history.
If we analyze the revolution of computers then we will come to know that today’s computers are different in many aspects from their ancestors. They are small in size, require less cost, less power consumption and most important thing is that they are very fast capable of millions of calculations per second.
Computers built between 1959 and 1964 are often regarded as ‘Second Generation’ computers, based on transistors and printed circuits – resulting in much smaller computers. More powerful, the second generation of computers could handle compilers for and so were much more flexible in their applications.
A brief description of evolution of computers since 1950 is given below.
Second Generation 1952-1965:
Transistors
Vacuum tubes no longer in use and were replaced by Transistors. Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material.Transistor invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, and now they are used in all digital circuitse.g. computers. Today’s latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of transistors.
Before the invention of transistors vacuum tubes were used in digital circuits instead, having many disadvantages.
They were much
Larger
required more energy
dissipated more heat
Simply, todays computers were not possible without invention of transistor.
The transistor was invented in 1947 after invention it was not widely used in computers until the 50s. The transistor were
smaller
faster
cheaper
more energy-efficient and
more reliable
In second-generation computers assembly language was used instead of machine language, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory.
Z4 (~1950)
Z4 was the second digital computer by German engineers
Specifications
Frequency: (about) 40 hertz
Average calculation speed: 400 ms for an addition
Input: Decimal numbers, punch tape
Output: Decimal numbers, punch tape
Word length: 32 bits
Elements: (about) 2,500 relays, 21 step-wise relays
Memory: Memory of the Z1 (64 words, 32 bit)
Power consumption: (about) 4 kW
(Wikipedia z4(computer) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z4_(computer)
Most successful 2nd generation computer was IBM 1401.
Third Generation1960-1970:
Integrated Circuits
The mass increase in the use of computers accelerated with ‘Third Generation’ computers.The first integrated circuit was produced in September 1958 but computers using them were not built until 1963.The development of the integrated circuit caused the development of the third generation of computers. Transistors were placed on silicon chipswhich dramatically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Semiconductors make it possible to minimize the size of electronic components.
It means that the components requires
Less space
faster and
Require less energy
The method of interaction of users with computers was changed. Instead of using punched cards now users were able to use keyboard and monitors including OS allowing the device to run many applications at a time. Computers became accessible to a big no of peoples because they were smaller and cheaper. Minicomputers were developed in this era. Many companies started their business in this field; significant names are Digital Equipment Corporation and IBM.
Most significant computer of this era was IBM System/360.
Fourth Generation 1971 and onward:
Microprocessors
The first microprocessor was developed by a prominent company named Intel. The microprocessor caused the fourth generation of computers. Thousands of integrated circuits when built onto single silicon chip then a microprocessor is formed. The terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. All personal computers and most workstations contain a microprocessor. Microprocessors control the logic of all digital devices.
On November 15, 1971, Intel released the world’s first commercial microprocessor,the 4004.
In this era integration was increased from ‘large scale’ to ‘ultra scale’.
Large scale integration:
Chip contains between 100 and 5,000 circuit elements
Very large scale integration:
Integrated circuits formed by combining thousands of transistor-based circuits typically ranging 100,000 – 1,000,000.
Ultra large scale integration:
Integrated circuits formed by combining more than one million components per chip.
“What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.”
The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer – from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls – on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.
Timeline of computing 1950-1979
1950s
Date
Place
Event
1950
Sep
GER
Z4 machine
1950
UK
The Pilot ACE computer
1951
USA
EDVAC becomes operational.
1951
Mar 30
USA
UNIVAC
1951
Apr 21
USA
Whirlwind, the first real-time computer was built at MIT by the team of Jay Forrester for the US Air Defense System, became operational.
1951
USA
EDVAC (electronic discrete variable computer). The first computer to use Magnetic Tape.
1951
AUS
CSIRAC used to play music
1952
USA
IAS machine completed at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, USA (by Von Neumann and others).
1954
USA
The NORC was built by IBM for the US Navy.
1956
USA
The Bendix G-15 computer was introduced by the Bendix Corporation
1958
USA
LISP (interpreted language) developed, Finished in 1960. LISP stands for ‘LISt Processing’
1958
Sep
USA
The integrated circuit invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments.
1959
USSR
Minsk mainframe computer development and production started in the USSR. Stopped in 1975.
1960s
Date
Place
Event
1960
SRB
CER-10
1962
UK
ATLAS is completed by the University of Manchester team.
1962
USA
Work started on the Linc.
1962
?
The AN/UYK-1 computer was designed
1963
USA
Mouse conceived by Douglas Engelbart
1964
USA
Launch of IBM System/360 – the first series of compatible computers.
1964
USA
Project MAC is started.
1964
SRB
CER-20 released by Mihajlo Pupin Institute of Serbia as “electronic bookkeeping machine”.
1965
USA
DEC PDP-8 Mini Computer. The first minicomputer, built by Digital Equipment (DEC).
1965
USA
Moore’s law published by Gordon Moore. Originally suggesting processor complexity doubled every year.
1965
USSR
BESM-6 mainframe computer was designed in the USSR.
1965
USA
The first supercomputer, the Control Data CDC 6600, was developed.
1966
SRB
CER-200 released by Mihajlo Pupin Institute of Serbia
1967
SRB
CER-22 – first transistor-based computer created.
1969
USA
Novas
1970s
Date
Place
Event
1970
Jun
USA
CTC creates the Datapoint 2200.
1971
Nov
USA
First microprocessor, the 4004, developed by a team at Intel, was released.
1972
Apr 1
USA
8008 microprocessor released by Intel.
1974
?
CLIP-4, the first computer with a parallel architecture.
1974
Apr 1
USA
Introduction of the 8080. It ran at a clock frequency of 2 MHz and did 0.64 MIPS.
1974
USA
Motorola announces the MC6800 8 Bit Microprocessor.
1974
Dec
USA
The MITS Altair 8800.
1975
NOR
Norwegian company Mycron releases its MYCRO-1, the first single-board computer.
1975
USA
IBM 5100 computer released; with integrated keyboard, display, and mass storage on tape.
1976
USA
Introduction of the Intel 8085 chip. An improved version of the 8080.
1976
USA
Z80 chip released by Zilog.
1976
USA
Cray-1 supercomputer was invented by Seymour Cray.
1977
Aug
USA
Tandy brought out the TRS-80 with “Level I BASIC.
1977
Sep
USA
Heathkit made the H8 Home computer kit available
1978
USA
Introduction of the 16-bit Intel 8086, the first x86 microprocessor.
1979
USA
The 68000 Microprocessor launched by Motorola.
1979
USA
The IBM PC
1979
USA
Texas Instruments releases the TI-99/4 microcomputer.
(Wikipedia Timeline of computing 1950-1979
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_1950-1979)
Links:
http://www.softwaretipsandtricks.com/windowsxp/articles/582/1/The-History-of-Computers
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/second+generation+computer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware#Second_generation:_transistors
Assignment # 1
Part B
By
M-Wajeeh
2008-NUST-BIT-36
(II)
Characteristics:
Cache size: 32Kbyte
Main memory: 16Mbytes
Size of block transfer: 4 Bytes
Direct mapping:
Address length (s + w): 24 bits
Line size 2w : 22
Number of blocks in main memory 2s : 222
Number of addressable units 2s+w : 224
Number of lines in cache 2r : 213
Size of tag (s-r): 9
Tag : 9 bit
Line : 13 bit
Word : 2 bit
Associative mapping:
Address length (s + w): 24 bits
Line size 2w : 22
Number of blocks in main memory 2s : 222
Number of addressable units 2s+w : 224
Number of lines in cache: undetermined
Size of tag s: 22
Tag : 22 bit
Word : 2 bit
Set associative mapping:
Using two way set associative mapping
Address length (s + w): 24 bits
Line size 2w : 22
Number of blocks in main memory 2s : 222
Number of lines in set k : 2
Number of sets v or 2d : 4K
Number of addressable units 2s+w : 224
Number of lines in cache kv: 213
Size of tag (s-d): 9
Tag : 10 bit
Set : 12 bit
Word : 2 bit
Replacement algorithm:
We will use LRU (least recently used)
Simulations have shown that random replacement provides only slightly inferior performance to LRU, So random algorithm can be used instead.
Write policy:
We will use write back technique i.e. update will only be made at replacement if UPDATE bit is set.
(i)
MEM A (1001);
LDR A (1001);
STR MR;
MEM B;
LDR #1; Store 1 in memory B (numbers to be multiplied)
STR B;
MEM C;
LDR #1000; Store 1000 in memory C (to stop after 1001)
STR C;
MEM D;
LDR #2000; Store 2000 in memory C
STR D;
LOOP1:
LDR #B; store the number to be multiplied in IR
STR IR;
LDR D; store 2000 in MR
STR MR;
LOOP2:
LDR IR;
DEC #1; Loop until number to be multiplied does not zero
STR IR;
BRZ L2;
LDR MR; Add 2000 in MR ‘number to be multiplied’ times
ADD D; Note: for first time it will not execute and the result
STR MR; 2000 x 1 will be stored in A(1) later.
JMP LOOP2;
L2:
LDR B;
STR IR;
INC #1; be ready to multiply with next number (previous remain stored in IR)
STR B;
LDR MR; pick the value stored in MR after multiplication (1st time 2000)
STR A (IR); and put it at IR’th location
LDR C;
DEC #1; do not cross 1001
STR C;
BRZ L1;
JMP LOOP1;
L1: end;
(ii)
MEM A (748);
LDR A (748);
STR MR;
MEM CC;
MEM B;
LDR #802; Store 802 in memory B (divisors)
STR B;
MEM C;
LDR #748; Store 748 in memory C (to stop after 748)
STR C;
MEM D;
LDR #98000; Store 98000 in memory C
STR D;
LOOP1:
LDR #1;
STR CC;
LDR #B; store the divisor in IR
STR IR;
LDR D; store 98000 in MR
STR MR;
LOOP2:
LDR MR;
SUB IR; DIVISION
STR MR;
BRN L2;
LDR CC;
INC #1; store the result in CC
STR CC;
JMP LOOP2;
L2:
LDR B;
DEC #1; be ready to divide with next number
STR B;
LDR CC; pick the value stored in CC after division
STR (A); and put it A
LDR C;
DEC #1; do not cross 748
STR C;
BRZ L1;
JMP LOOP1;
L1: end;
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