Urban Regeneration Environment
TO WHAT EXTENT HAS CULTURE-LED REGENERATION AFFECTED THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Abstract
To what extent has Culture-Led Regeneration affected the built environment within the UK? Use examples to put this into a wider context.
Since the 1940’s the phrase ‘Urban Regeneration’ has been increasingly used in conjunction with the action of redeveloping land which had, in years prior, been areas of moderate to high density urban land use. The study of this process and the way in which it came about has also increased as the successes of Urban Regeneration throughout the United Kingdom and indeed internationally, continue to prove economically, socially and politically advantageous to any number of parties involved in the development of gentrification over the last 70 years.
In addition to looking at how regeneration has affected the built environment, the idea that it has been ‘culture-led’ poses further aspects and issues but however, less scrutiny has been given to the idea of regeneration being ‘culture-led’, this is a continuously growing area which deserves more analysis due to the economic success it has given investors and key stakeholders. It has also worked towards preserving some of Britain’s architectural heritage for the future, giving certain areas that would otherwise have been in a state of disrepair a new lease of life and additional social benefits.
By paying attention to the way in which regeneration has developed during the 20th century to becoming culture-led it will be possible to give an in-depth view of the effects on the existing urban fabric of the United Kingdom, particularly over the last 25 years.
There are a number of ways in which cultural regeneration takes place, from local governments wanting to increase investment in the area to them gaining status through cultural events such as the Olympic and Commonwealth games, the World Cup to the European Capital of Culture and prominent buildings such as Stadiums and tourist attractions. All of which will be discussed and then highlighted through case studies including the Albert Docks in Liverpool, the Capital of Culture for 2008 and Salford Quays, Manchester which was involved in the Commonwealth Games 2002.
On a wider scale, regeneration has played an important role in the history and demographics of cities around the world including Beijing and Melbourne, commonly cited UK examples include Salford Quays in Manchester and Albert Docks in Liverpool; other UK examples include, Canary Wharf in London and Cardiff in Wales. For the purposes of this study, UK examples will be used to directly answer the question posed, which will then be put in to context through briefly analysing the city of Bilbao and Barcelona in, Spain.
Regeneration or ‘gentrification’ can be a contentious topic due to the variety of complex issues surrounding this topic. This often includes, premium prices charged for the new developments. To the nature of change and impact on the local communities that may have fallen in to decline. The existing infrastructure and community that is impacted on by the process of regeneration can take time to evolve and ultimately impact upon the initiatives proposed, as well as the effects on the local community, the power of which should not be underestimated. In order to balance the argument for regeneration it will be necessary to substantiate these different viewpoints and provide a fair consideration from all stakeholders who would be involved and affected by developments.
The impact on the environment caused by regeneration can vary depending on the amount of refurbishing and the variety of materials used in the regeneration programme. The extent to which these are recycled and reused to reduce the amount of waste and energy varies with each development. This field of expertise is large and far-reaching and will be discussed briefly in chapter 4 using case studies to highlight the various aspects. The study will also address physical as well as the environmental impacts of regeneration with past and current projects aiming to improve urban areas, with the aid of culture to deliver change. The environment aspect in particular is becoming increasingly important as the country’s social conscience continues to increase into the future.
The paper will then draw together conclusions using arguments both in favour of and also against urban regeneration. It will also draw on why cultural regeneration is initiated and why these areas are finding the effects of cultural regeneration successful.
The paper will also touch on areas that may have failed or where areas are finding the task of regenerating the physical but also the social and political aspects challenging.
It will also be possible to discuss and argue the extent to which culture-led regeneration has moved away from the initial aims of improving an area’s social and economic problems to also encompass the physical and environmental aspects of improving an area. This multi-faceted approach has continued to provide many obstacles for experts within the area but these are challenges that, if overcome, will ensure the longevity and economic well being of the project in question for a long time to come.
The degree to which urban regeneration has affected the built environment in the UK is likely to be extensive due to well known case studies and examples, as well as visual evidence being clear in day to day life and also being reported in the media, however extracting the elements of gentrification to date and stating to what level they have been purely culture-led will prove more complicated due to difficulties in finding material that points to an area of culture as being the sole catalyst for the regeneration to begin.
The essay proposes to demonstrate why cultural regeneration is successful
Chapter 1 – History
History of regeneration – Industrial revolution
- Early 20th century (1940’s)
- Last 25 years (definition culture led – detail) – Castleford, Canary Wharf
QUOTE
The United Kingdom has a long history that has become synonymous with the manufacturing industry, dating back to the British Empire when the UK imported and exported many products from countries around the world. During the earliest phase of the Industrial Revolution the Bridgewater Canal was built in 1761, this halved the price of coal in Manchester due to decreased transport costs and ease of access. This triggered a period of canal building activity between 1760 and 1850, the canals provided the infrastructure by which trade could occur more easily and cheaply and it is along these waterways that many cities were developed, including Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Birmingham and London.
Many industrial facilities were strategically located close to rivers, canals and estuaries, most notably Manchester and Liverpool being situated just 35 miles apart and joined by the Manchester Ship Canal, the North West became a fundamental destination for cotton and textiles and manufacturing as well as Liverpool becoming a central dock for trade due its global connections.
The Industrial Revolution also witnessed a large growth in population, in 1695 the population of Britain was estimated to be 5.5million, by the early part of 1801, just over 100 years later, this had grown to 9.3million and 40 years later again, almost doubled to 15.9million people in 1841. These figures represent a 60% increase in just 40 years. (www.historylearningsite.co.uk) In the North West, Manchester alone experienced a dramatic six-fold increase in its population during this time.
The development of cities during this period clearly meant that workers moved to these areas seeking jobs, stability and prosperity. By 1900, 80% of Britain’s population lived in urban areas, whilst the number of workers employed in the agricultural sector fell from eleven percent to just two percent. (www.statistics.gov.uk). There were various reasons for this to occur, but the main ones being the advances in technology and the closure of many farming and agricultural companies, hence reducing the number of those employed in this sector.
This sudden surge in the migration of people from rural to urban areas, initially for jobs in the factories or mills, obviously meant that housing was required in these ‘super-cities’, and it was needed quickly. The ever increasingly rich owners of the businesses saw the need to provide cheap housing for their workers, and so the now-famous back to back terraced housing associated with British industrial inner cities were born.
The back-to-back terrace was the most popular addition to the city due to it being cheap and easy to construct, as well as durable and serving the purpose that it was required for. However, much of this housing was constructed without proper planning, adequate facilities or infrastructure for clean running water and waste disposal. Areas throughout the United Kingdom fell into a state of squalor and disrepair; serious efforts were made to reverse the ‘slum’ conditions resulting from the housing crisis over the next 100 years.
During 1909, a Town Planning Act was formed, this act was to, ‘forbid the building of any more back-to-back houses’, this highlighted the need for builders and designs to meet certain standards. During the First World War the slogan, ‘Homes fit for heroes’ (Crisp 1998) which accompanied the revised Town Planning Act in 1919. This Act focused on implementing improvements to inner city slums on general housing conditions, in order to create space for new housing many of the workers were persuaded to move out to the suburbs which were ‘greener’ and ‘cleaner’ this coincided with the decline of the industrial revolution and again agriculture levels increased. Once many of the inner city areas had been abandoned, a prompt decision was taken to destroy many of the workers houses due to the overcrowded and poor conditions of them.
During the post war-era employment in the city grew more slowly than in towns and rural areas, employment began to decrease in the 1960’s and the decline spread to almost all cities in the 1970’s. As the world’s first industrial economy virtually collapsed within a ten year period between 1970 and 1980, 55% of jobs were lost in cities during the recession. (Turok & Edge) The former industrial cities of Newcastle, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester were left lifeless and devoid of jobs, whilst towns and rural areas saw a steady increase in the number of opportunities.
The inner cities were left with polluted by-products from the factories whilst the movement of jobs and people to the country was actively encouraged with the aim of reducing over-crowding, in order to clean up the cities and plan orderly settlements for the future. This led to further social and economic problems such as crime and relative poverty as many areas sank in to depression. During the 1980’s, Manchester and Liverpool along with the other industrial areas of Birmingham and Newcastle had lost their influential status, mills, warehouses and docks which had made the cities so successful lay abandoned and increasingly vandalised, whilst the river and canal networks lay polluted.
The beginning of the ‘Information Age’ during the 1990’s saw a sharp transition from primary manufacturing industries to a knowledge based, service industry. This was seen as an important driver for change, despite the ability for new industries and businesses to locate in rural areas, through the use of the digital medium of the Internet. However, financial services and the retail industry have increasingly relocated business to city centres once again, creating flagship stores that drew service sector workers back into the city centre in turn creating the need for additional services in the city.
The end of the 20th century saw the start of a renaissance in the development of new and improved venues for cultural activity, from arts and media centres, theatres, museums and galleries, to less formal roles such as public art works and urban designs in the public domain. Many towns and cities were seen to be re-investing in the rich cultural heritage of the past, and complementing this with contemporary art projects and exhibitions. It was during this time that work within the creative industries was recognised as bringing a viable way of sustaining a business enterprise around the arts and crafts, later joined by digital media based work.
Chapter 2 – Culture-Led Models
Major events – 3 models – e.g. Olympic games (London , Commonwealth, Capital of Culture, World Cup, Stadiums International context/differences – Bilbao (Capital of Culture), Barcelona (Olympics)
It has not only been traditional and historic ‘cultural capitals’ or ‘world cities’, that have looked to install this new form of cultural energy into their urban centres, those seeking to transform their image, established industrial cities as in the case of Bilbao and Glasgow.
These cities are undergoing re-imaging, through new and upgraded cultural facilities to try and appeal as cosmopolitan destinations for the first time. Towns and cities such as these, will undoubtedly be greatly affected through culture, not only on the built environment, but also in their social and economic development.
The role culture can play in attempting to regenerate an area can be expressed through three different models of regeneration; cited in a report by the Department of Culture, Media and Sports, on the contribution of culture within regeneration in the United Kingdom. The three models include; – Culture-led Regeneration
– Culture Regeneration
– Culture & Regeneration
The models which have been identified show where cultural activity can be incorporated, or incorporates itself into a regeneration process. The different models developed include defining culture-led regeneration, cultural regeneration as well as culture and regeneration. Although sounding similar, the models represent and explain three varied approaches to regeneration.
Culture-led Regeneration often involves the use of physical and environmental improvements and more often results in the creation of new cultural facilities. This can be through the construction of new buildings, or the reuse of existing structures, examples of which might include Peckham Library, the TATE modern in Southwark, or the Sage music centre and BALTIC centre for contemporary art in Gateshead.
Due to the nature of these highly visible projects, both in the public domain and through marketing and advertising, there can be a misinterpretation that some cultural facilities are solely responsible for the regeneration of an area, when in fact they may be a less significant element in a wider, longer term programme. (Evans 2005).
This can be identified particularly where “flagship” projects are concerned. Bilbao is one example where the external image of the city has been dominated by a single
building; the Guggenheim. In this case, far less attention has been given to the preparation of infrastructure, such as improvements to roads and metro systems as well as the improvements to housing, with new residential developments, with the redevelopment of existing cultural facilities that may also have contributed to the regeneration of the city.
Castleford, in West Yorkshire, has a population of around 38,000. The restructuring of the mining industry in 1997 meant that the number of employees had fallen to under six hundred. The closure of the mines, and other redundancies has led to unusually high levels of unemployment, poor health and low education achievements.
The residents are unusually committed to improving the quality life, The Castleford Project is a programme of improvements supported by a collaboration between Wakefield, key regeneration agencies and the community; to improve the town centre, health care, bring safety within the neighbourhoods and local communities and give opportunities to the younger demographic..
The successful approach to the Castleford project shows that culture-led can support regeneration of the former West Yorkshire mining town. Just a few years prior many felt that towns on the outskirts of Yorkshire such as Castleford were in terminal decline following pit and factory closures that put thousands out of work. A strong community spirit led the changes in the area which saw the development of a visionary 25 year urban renaissance programme, this large scale project covered Castleford and four other local towns.
The Castleford project has been unique in the sense that it was designed to empower local people to improve their area and develop their own vision and identity for the future. It involved a partnership between the council, the local community, and Channel 4 television which invested one hundred thousand pounds, as well as regional and national organisations; as a result local people have a sense of pride and care over their community. The initial catalyst for the regeneration of Castleford was the development of the Xscape leisure and shopping complex, this boasts the largest indoor ski slope in Europe, it is said to attract more visitors than anywhere else in Yorkshire, which has also led to the creation of many jobs, more than previously available when the pit was in existence.
Considerable investment is being put into the area with one single firm staking £55m. There is good quality house building, a new hotel, supermarket and plans for a heritage centre. By being rooted in the community and having the local people’s full support this regeneration programme has proved a success, if a project such as this is not deeply rooted in the community then it is not guaranteed to be successful or sustainable.
Barcelona is a true example of Cultural Regeneration, where a ‘Cultural City’, was a successful host of the Olympic Games in 1992. Barcelona took the initiative with the early approach to urban design and culture planning. The design of creative quarters which span between the old city and the Olympic village site, this often meant refurbishing and reviving derelict industrial areas. This form of ‘Urbanism’ in Barcelona has been characterised by the forming of cultural and public squares linked by avenues and promenades that promote the form of culture. A major feature of Barcelona’s regeneration programme involved the expansion of the city centre to encompass the former industrial areas situated on the city’s periphery. This allowed the redevelopment and expansion of the commercial sector along the waterfront. In 1999 the RIBA presented its Royal Gold Medal to Barcelona, the first time a city has received the award. It was given the award for its dramatic and successful transformation which is now widely accepted as a model for cultural regeneration on an international scale. Barcelona proved itself through the successful bid and hosting of the 1992 Olympic Games; other examples of this cultural regeneration model include the European Capital of Culture programmes (ECOC), the international Expositions (EXPO) along with the annual celebrations such as the Edinburgh festival. Host cities have used these international events to increase their cultural profile and in turn these events to help initiate a long term regeneration programme.
Glasgow became the first city to become European Capital of Culture in 1990 having had more than three years to plan for the event. This award was seen as an important opportunity as a catalyst for urban regeneration through the form of culture; Glasgow’s legacy as the first city with ECOC status 16 years ago has sustained this development; similar effects to Barcelona which has been recognised as a success internationally. Seville (EXPO 92), Lisbon (ECOC 94 & EXPO 98) and Rotterdam (ECOC 01) are cases where large-scale regeneration programmes have been combined with these cultural events.
Liverpool has been nominated as ECOC in 2008 and has chosen to build up to this event by hosting themed years. Liverpool was a major participant in the national celebrations of Sea Britain, with special relevance to 2005, The Year of the Sea. Hosting the start and finish of the 2005-06 & 2007-08 Round the World Clipper Race.
2008 the year of the Capital of Culture will see Liverpool hosting major events
highlighting different aspects of the city’s unique culture including ‘The Tall Ships’ Race’ which has a significant connection with the cities maritime heritage.
One event can have wider and far lasting cultural benefits, whilst attracting further investment and increased visitor numbers. Liverpool suffered a vast industrial decline leaving large areas of Brownfield sites derelict which caused economic and social problems. The ECOC will be a vital aid in reshaping and reforming Liverpool to revive the city back to its former successful status, with the regeneration of its famous waterfront known as the Albert Docks.
In the third model, Culture and Regeneration, cultural activities are not fully integrated at either the development or planning stages. This is primarily due to the responsibilities for cultural provision and regeneration being often handled separately, within different departments. This means that any provisions for leisure or culture are likely to be small and implemented after any physical regeneration has taken place, as normally the primary focus was to develop housing and commercial space, the main and sure-fire reasons for bringing money in to an area. This model suggests that in terms of physical and environmental regeneration, the visible signs of any cultural activity or improvements may be small, but this does not mean that cultural activity is absent. This indicates that the cultural element has not been used to promote the regeneration programme. This type of regeneration has distinct connections with community groups, local groups and councils which may not exist in larger ‘flagship’ programmes,
These three models Culture-led Regeneration, Cultural Regeneration and Culture & Regeneration, highlight the different scale of regeneration projects and the level of cultural activities which can differ greatly, from whole “cultural cities” to redeveloped waterfronts, to community orientated public art programmes. The nature of the ‘culture’ element in each model may vary, it is clear that culture can contribute to the regeneration programmes whilst also interacting with the physical, social and economic aspects that help to revive areas. The physical and environmental improvements, delivered within a cultural context are the visible signs of progression that ultimately promote the success and image of the city.
Chapter 3- Case Studies
Case Study 1 – Salford Quays
Case Study 2 – Albert Docks
Case Studies – Albert Docks
The Albert Docks is situated on the waters of the Mersey. The former docks comprises from five blocks of five storey warehouses, which provided 1.25 million square foot of storage space, surrounding by a quadrangle of water. Traditionally, the port had relied on privately owned warehousing in the town to store cargo from the dock. Since the decline in the city between 1970 to 1980, Liverpool has experienced more urban regeneration than virtually any other city in the UK. Since 1971 the city had to respond to a reduction in its population of about a quarter and a loss of more than half of its manufacturing industry. Over this period Liverpool has experimented in a variety in Urban regeneration schemes.
The first government response to the emerging “inner city problem” came in 1968 with the launch of the Urban Programme – small amounts of short term funding to support local community development projects in the inner city. Liverpool was amongst the first to benefit from 50 schemes supported by the programme including nursery, class, sports and community facilities.
In 1969 the Home Office established a series of Community Development Projects (CDPs) including the Vauxhall CDP in addition to supporting a number of local projects, community education programmes, community centres etc. Researchers on the project concluded that the areas problems had structural roots and resulted from external economic change and restructuring (Topping and Smith 1977)
In 1979, the new government established Urban Development Cooperation (including the Merseyside Development Corporation) central government agencies with the power and resources to reclaim large amounts of urban dereliction and to return them to beneficial economic use. Other areas of derelict land developers were offered more relaxed planning permissions and tax breaks.
Through the 1980s British regeneration policy put a lot of emphasis on supporting local economic development by increasing the supply of land and buildings in inner cities.
The first response of the government was to introduce City Challenge; a programme that allowed local authorities to lead local partnerships in bidding for central government money to support local regeneration projects, Liverpool was one of the first successful cities receiving 37.5million in the first round of bidding.
By the 1980s Liverpool’s central area was in decline, few people lived in the City Centre, office and Commercial employment was falling and shopping centres were losing trade. The start of the programme to transform the waterfront commenced in 1986 the project saw the conversion of the existing warehouses into a complex of retail, restaurants, cafe’, and a series of office units and business headquarters. Also there are a number of unique visitor attractions;- Tate Liverpool, the Beatles Story, Merseyside Maritime Museum, the International Slavery Museum, Liverpool Ghost Tours, and The Yellow Duckmarine. This development includes a number of luxury apartment, hotels and a state of the art conference / exhibition centre. The importance of the Albert dock’s to Liverpool is vast as it continues to attract visitors and has helped to re brand Liverpool from a declining and poor city. This in turn has led to the millions of pounds of investment reshaping the heart of the city centre with the development of Paradise Street.
In the new millennium there are new challenges for planning and regeneration schemes in response to changes in social trends (cultural and political) with an increase in environmental issues, economic changes and associated with globalisation and the drive for developments to be more sustainable. However Liverpool has recognised the value of culture to aid in transforming a failing city, with the help of this development it will ignite many other opportunities for the city.
Case Study – Salford Quays
Located in the former Docks area of Manchester and Salford, recently labelled as Salford Quays, The Lowry Centre is widely recognised as being key in the regeneration of Salford, Manchester and adding to the improvement of the North West as a region. As a national landmark in the Millennium Project for “The Arts” this comprises of galleries, theatres, bars, shops and restaurants. The Lowry Centre opened in April 2000 and has since been credited, along with its associated projects, with the creation of 6,500 jobs in the local economy. It is predicted that 11,000 new jobs will arise as a result of the regeneration of the Quays as a whole [Goodey 2000]. These associated cultural projects include The Designer Outlet shopping centre, the Imperial War Museum North (IWMN) and the latest development of the Mediacity:uk which will house the BBC; it also includes other leisure orientated facilities such as a multi screen cinema complex and a water sports centre.
Although a culture-led scheme, the Lowry project was conceived as the final part of the regeneration of Salford Quays, a process that began in the mid 1980s, following the purchase of the Docks from the Manchester Ship Canal Company by Salford City Council in 1983. A development plan was prepared, which sought to “create a new quarter of the city which has a unique character derived from the way in which all parts of the development are related to water; and where people would be encouraged to work, live and play in a high quality environment” [Salford City Council, 1985]. However, despite the great potential that existed in the development of the waterfront, the site was not ideally located in terms of attracting residents, businesses or visitors; “The Docks were three kilometres from the city centre, enclosed by walls and filled with polluted water” [Struthers 2003].
At that time there was very little infrastructure existing prior to the plan. The adjacent Trafford Park Industrial Estate, was littered with derelict warehouses that had little access to the road network and no public transport provisions. Consequently, a reclamation programme was directed at three vital aspects of the site; water, roads and services, in addition to public access and landscaping. Following concerns that the site may be developed purely for housing and offices, a development strategy review was prepared and published in 1988 and set the context for future proposals with an emphasis on a mixture of uses and their relationship to the water, providing opportunities for leisure and culture based activities [Salford City Council, 1988]. This reflected the idea that both physical and environmental improvements had to be made in order to fully exploit the potential of Salford Quays.
It took five years to close the main water basin which allowed the water itself to be treated and cleaned whilst the surrounding areas were cleared ready for the private sector development that was to follow. The access roads were developed to link the Quays internally, this initially meant the improvement of bridges, paths and walkways. There were also connections made to the major road networks into Manchester and beyond. This was all carried out in conjunction with landscaping the area and installing lighting and street furniture before any major building work could be carried out.
The success of the Lowry Centre was entirely dependent on the infrastructure that was laid before it, in order to carry the number of visitors, workers and residents that would be required for it to be a success. The presence of the Lowry itself was a main drawing point for the Imperial War Museum which is now located directly opposite and is linked by the Lowry pedestrian bridge. The Imperial War Museum, a major tourist attraction in it’s own right was opened in 2002 and was designed by renowned architect, Daniel Libeskind, the imposing design aimed to depict the “world as a globe, shattered by war and man’s self-destruction” [Libeskind, 2001].
Along with Old Trafford, the Imperial War Museum and the Lowry signify the cultural landmarks known as ‘The Quays’. The decision to extend Manchester’s tram link to the Quays from Manchester City Centre as well as Bury in the north and Altrincham in the south of the city meant that the Quays was now open to a greater number of visitors, commuters and also residents.
Chapter 4- Regeneration
Sustainable regeneration
Environmental effects of regeneration
Physical regeneration
Arguments against Regeneration – social and environmental (rich people/poor areas and the infrastructure)
Environmental / Physical effects
The appearance and environment of towns and cities are clear representations of their history as well as indicators of their present ability to provide a quality of life to residents and business owners or workers.
The built environment has always performed a wide range of functions, the main theme being initially shelter, social enablers and also trade. All of this forms the ‘face’ of a town or city, how that place is perceived and whether it can provide the necessary facilities that a potential investor would require to be successful and thrive, also that there is always the potential for it to develop.
Over time, the importance of these functions change which creates a continual desire for new land and space. If for example, a function is no longer required, such as those factories and houses highlighted earlier, following the decline of the industrial revolution, then the land and buildings are made redundant. If they are not re-used and new functions identified then they will fall in to disrepair and in direct correlation, this can in turn, affect can a whole area through the decline in jobs and house prices. As in the case of Salford Quays, many facilities were located close to the canal networks and docks, the ongoing neglect of these areas and waterways added to the pollution of the environments. Water and air quality can have further reaching effects on an area, whilst other environmental aspects such as open land will have more localised effects.
Although this paper primarily focuses on culture being the main catalyst for regeneration, it should also be pointed out that physical renewal is cited as an important sign and accelerator as well as a commitment to change and improvement, ‘physical renewal is usually a necessary if not sufficient condition for successful regeneration’ (Jeffrey & Pounder 2005).
The idea of using physical renewal to regenerate an area, could mean that existing buildings are refurbished or re-used, as well as new buildings added and improvements made to the surrounding areas. It is unlikely that the physical factor alone will successfully regenerate an area, social problems can be further reaching than this. However the sole fact that physical regeneration is visible means that it can play a leading role in establishing a new image for an area, drawing investors in and allowing social and economic regeneration to take place. It is the visible nature of this regeneration that means the areas become more easy to market and therefore attract even further development and investment.
One example of this are ‘flagship’ schemes, these aim to change the context of an area by reducing the negative image associated with it, replacing it with an improved image of the physical and functional content of the area. This idea was the typical approach taken by Urban Development Corporation,set up in the 1980s (Loftman & Nevin 1996), the Lowry Centre and Birmingham Convention Centre set the precedent of boosting the profile of their areas. Projects such as these have been successful in regenerating large areas of land, normally on former derelict industrial sites or outlying areas of cities where the physical and environmental factors of an area are not usually a priority. A good example of this is where the docks and canals were used as a feature to build upon, this idea has particular relevance to those mentioned earlier during the post industrial revolution era.
The Castlefield area of Manchester is typical of this type of regeneration. From 1988 to 1998, the canal side mills and warehouses of the Castlefield basin, were dramatically improved and redeveloped along with the area’s canals and bridges. The Castlefield basin was once the main infrastructure for road, rail and canal based transport of industrial goods in Manchester, it was designated as Britain’s first Urban Heritage Park following a successful public-private partnership regeneration scheme, which reached completion in 1996 [Dickson& Rendek 2002]. A main feature of this scheme was the conversion of the world’s oldest surviving passenger railway station built in 1830. The converted building was transformed into the Museum of Science and Industry. The
Manchester Evening News announced in November the Museum of Science and Industry with a £54m pound redevelopment over the 2.5 hectare site. The visionary project would create a dynamic ‘Museum Quarter’. This development would
create four new galleries, exhibition spaces and a conference centre; one of the new galleries will showcase the ‘Revolution of Manchester giving a strong cohesion between the industrial era of the city. Architect David Dernie said that he hopes his designs have captured the Victorian spirit of `innovation and creativity’.
Following the steady decline of rail and canal transport in the 1950s and 1960s due to changes in industry, the station had been used as a goods depot until 1975 when it was purchased by Manchester City Council. Castlefield was later designated a conservation area, an important milestone in the development of the area [www.unesco.org]. The outcomes of this scheme are significant and highlight the opportunities made available in the existing environment, the reclaiming of the brownfield site and the preservation and reuse of historical resources can help to revive the area and give residents as a sense of pride in their local area.
When looking at physical regeneration schemes such as Castlefield and the Albert Dock, where existing features were enhanced, it is important to note that a level of environmental improvement is necessary as well as physical improvements in order to attract further development. Previously run down, disused areas such as those mentioned would have suffered from vacant, derelict buildings and possibly contaminated land and water, as well as needing major aesthetic work to them. With regeneration schemes on such a large scale increasingly looking towards mixed-use programmes of redevelopment, such as commercial and residential, the enhancement of their visual appearance but also the environmental impacts increasingly play a central role in making them desirable and, in turn a success.
The characteristics of environmental and urban design has depended largely upon the location and type of use that they are trying to attract. Normally residential, leisure and industrial uses require more of their immediate surorundings, whilst retail and those of a higher commercial value are more sensitive to the wider demographics of an area. This is quite obviously the case when studying the likes of Castlefield, this is where improvements have been made to public amenities, landscaping as well as to accessibility and servicing. Transformations at this level are costly, but are necessary when attempting to plan and carry out the regeneration of inner city areas. Improvements of this level are a costly but perhaps necessary prerequisite when attempting to implement a regeneration programme to inner city urban areas. As more out of town redevelopments appear on the edges of towns and cities it is clear that consideration and planning of the environmental impacts is lessened. Regeneration in central areas require elements of quality design in order to make them physically attractive and therefore attract investment and improve public perceptions of the place. The case studies mentioned above in Castlefield and the Albert Docks undoubtedly kept some of their heritage and historical references, despite having been subject to decades of neglect. This provided a solid architectural base upon which to build, other areas have not had this basis which has led them to using sporting and cultural events to help them transform.
Arguments against…
As highlighted, regardless of the reasons for regeneration occurring the effects resulting from it have been proved largely successful and beneficial for all stakeholders involved. There are critics of urban regeneration however, as with most new phenomenons that have proved so successful. The main problems with regeneration schemes are coming under increased scrutiny in the new millennium due to social consciousness becoming more aware of the effects of regeneration on the environment and how regeneration can become more sustainable. Also are the impacts on local communities who exist prior to investment from private companies, planning by local governments and being ‘taken over’ by the corporate sector who are seen to move in and capitalise on the growth of the area.
Wherever regeneration is likely to take place it is certain that it will receive a diverse response. Many of the cases of regeneration initiatives highlighted are based on ‘prestige’ or being ‘flagship’ projects, as with Salford Quays and the Albert Docks, all of which is carried out to encourage physical and economic renewal in certain areas.
‘Prestige developments are high profile, large-scale developments that are capable of attracting inward investment and promoting new urban images’ (Loftman & Nevin 1995). There has been much debate about the role of the flagship developments, in some areas they have been used to stimulate physical urban regeneration whilst as explained earlier, in some areas these prestige developments have been developed as a result of urban regeneration, instead of a catalyst.
The development of prestige projects has also had negative impacts on the existing communities who surround the developments, such as the affordability of living in the area, as prices in local shops, transport and parking etc. all increase, the people in the surrounding communities still live on the same salaries and jobs. The integration of the new prestigious and normally wealthier communities developed by regeneration, with the existing,usually poorer surrounding communities, has also proved problematic in some areas. (case study) The existing people often resent the new incoming people and this can have negative social impacts including increasing crime rates. Poverty and inequality have long been scrutinised however the understanding of this has changed with the influence of regeneration, in particular to encompass the term ‘social exclusion’.
Social exclusion ’emphasises the way people are closed out of social,economic and political mainstream of society’ (Fernie 2002) Regeneration however attempts to alleviate the effects of social exclusion but it some cases it has only sought to exacerbate them.
Economic growth opportunities have shifted from the manufacturing industry to high-tech sectors which are often located near to strong educational institutions again highlighted by the case of Salford Quays and Manchester and Salford Universities and the Albert Docks with Liverpool and John Moores Universities. Although on the whole this proves economically sound for the majority of people and the areas as a whole, there are again, a number of people who will be disadvantaged, i.e. Those who did not attend the universities and gain this level of education. As the types of business and jobs in the area change to accommodate the change in industry brought about by regeneration, the lower skilled and less educated existing residents will find it increasingly difficult to gain meaningful employment, the result being either having to move away from the area in search of jobs or becoming unemployed. On the whole, regeneration will create jobs of all levels but there are still opponents who believe that some will be displaced.
Although regeneration has many merits through re-developing areas and generally improving them, there are also concerns that are sometimes overlooked during the planning stages surrounding the over-development or over crowding of an area. Obviously this is not of concern in the beginning as the main aim is to ensure that the area will develop and gain prosperity. If not planned correctly it is possible that a residential area can become overcrowded easily, particularly if the majority of housing are blocks of flats. It is necessary to ensure that the infrastructure in place will be able to cope with the amount of traffic likely to accompany developments of that size once they are built but also well in to the future. This point also applies to tourist attractions which may grow in popularity or at certain times of the year, or if more developments are to be built within the vicinity. Taking Trafford Park in Manchester as an example, the infrastructure for the Trafford Centre was built several years ago, since then however the area has developed increasingly as it has become more popular to include a retail park, leisure complex and the largest indoor ski slope in Europe; ‘Chill Factore’. This has meant access roads and parking facilities within the area have had to be reviewed and in some cases redesigned to adapt to the increasing levels of traffic, this is something that could not have been planned during the Trafford Centre stages, but something which also could not have been stifled if the area is to continue growing, providing jobs and bringing money in to the area from far and wide. Another issue arising from the increased level of development of the Trafford Park is the referral of the metro connection between the city centre and the Trafford Centre. On the other hand, this has had a positive effect with the newly refurbished Arndale Centre.
One of the most important issues to emerge during analysis of regeneration and its successes and relative failures has been the importance of local partnerships and the sustainability of regeneration programmes whilst including and consulting the local areas. Whilst some regeneration programmes have imposed its economic and social terms on the regions to be affected others have been about ‘developing appropriate, flexible and responsive forums for developing and delivering regeneration projects’ (Couch et al 2003) this can be seen in the example of the Castleford Project.
The Castleford Project was an initiative designed to support the regeneration of the former West Yorkshire mining town. It was advised by some of the UK’s leading figures in regeneration, design and development and took place largely from April 2003 to the end of 2006. This project is an example of Culture-led Regeneration, the project was unique in the sense that it was designed to empower local people to improve their area and develop their own vision and identity for the future. It involved a partnership between the council, the local community, Channel 4 television as well as regional and national organisations, as a result local people have a sense of pride and care over their community. The initial catalyst for the regeneration of Castleford was the development of the Xscape leisure and shopping complex, this boasts one of the largest indoor ski slopes in Europe, it is said to attract more visitors than anywhere else in Yorkshire, which has also led to the creation of many jobs, more than previously available when the pit was in existence. Following the huge backing from the local community and visitors, this has a direct influence on other initiatives in the county,; improvements to local infrastructure, education and healthcare.
The reason for the success of this project was primarily down to the local people of West Yorkshire. The unity of these local people have proved a declining town and image can be revitalised through hard work with the council. Due to meetings, these people have a development that works for them, providing jobs and facilities. Not a redevelopment that offers plush new apartment which local people can not afford.
Just a few years prior, many felt that towns on the outskirts of Yorkshire such as Castleford were in terminal decline following pit and factory closures that put thousands out of work, a strong community spirit led the changes in the area which saw the development of a visionary 25 year urban renaissance programme, a large scale project that covered Castleford and four other local towns.
Considerable investment was put into the area with one single firm putting in £55m. There is good quality house building, a new hotel, supermarket and plans for a heritage centre. By being rooted in the community and having the local people’s full support this regeneration programme has proved successful, if a project such as this, had not been deeply rooted in the community then it is not guaranteed to be successful, sustainable or accepted.
Sustainable regeneration
Although a range of definitions exist for the term ‘sustainable development’, what it means and how it might be implemented, the concept at least is ‘increasingly assuming a central role in urban policy across Europe – not just for environmental policy, but also as a guiding principle for economic, social and cultural policies’ (Gibbs 1999). Sustainable regeneration seeks to bring together environmental sustainability, economic efficiency and social needs, not an easy task and one that has inherent contradictions. Nevertheless, many of the regeneration programmes examined have recognised the increasing importance of environmental sustainability as a new way of solving some of the problems, as it is becoming clear that, to attract new sources of wealth, then the city or region must have a good, clean environment.
It is also necessary however, to discuss how sustainable the use of culture is in either form of renewal. At this point, it is important to differentiate sustainability in physical, economic and social development, from environmental sustainability, which concerns the overall efficiency of buildings with respect to the energy and resources used in their construction and lifetime operation.
In one respect it can be argued that all urban regeneration is able to contribute to sustainable development, purely on the premise that it is recycling derelict land and fabric that would otherwise go to waste, and consequently reducing the demand for peripheral development, helping to form more compact urban centres [Couch & Denneman 2000].
As a relatively recent phenomenon, it may be difficult or unrealistic to attempt to review and assess the merits of urban regeneration in terms of a sustainable practice, however, this study has already examined the response of large scale regeneration projects to what has been described as an inevitable consequence of political, economic and social systems, generating such demands for change and it has highlighted that physical regeneration alone can not successfully sustain this renewal.
The definition of sustainability implies that an application is maintained at a certain level or rate and that a balance should be achieved through such a process. Culture-led regeneration, as a process, can be assessed on two different scales, from its application in a specific environment or case study, to its use in regeneration as a whole. From schemes in Barcelona and Salford Quays, a similarity can be found with their respective regeneration programs, where physical renewal, and more specifically, culture-based developments centred amongst this renewal played a leading role in their overall success.
Both programmes then continued to stimulate their cultural development through event based projects such as the Olympic games and in Salford, particular events associated with the Commonwealth games, whilst using the physical manifestation of their “flagship” cultural facilities as a visual base, helping to deliver a broad range of appeal to their respective destinations without relying too heavily on them.
Evans and Shaw have described regeneration as ‘both a process and an outcome’ [Evans & Shaw 2006] if we are to accept that urban regeneration is ultimately an ongoing and adaptable process, which can adjust to deliver the needs of individual environments, and the communities within them, it will therefore have the ability to develop sustainably at a given rate over a largely undetermined time scale. A focus can be directed upon the use of cultural facilities within urban regeneration. As an outcome of this process, they must not only be designed, but also managed with sustainability in mind. As this study has already identified, urban regeneration brings about economic gain and whilst this is so, it is reasonable to assume that it will be seen in part as a sustainable practice.
It is important to view cultural projects as elements of the regeneration process, but also as individual components. Whilst regeneration can adapt to new demands, so too must the cultural projects that result from it. The Salford Quays regeneration project was initiated at the beginning of the 1980’s, and its development continues today, over 25 years on, if not in name but with the vision and direction with which it was initiated. The current plans for the area are centred upon the development of a new creative hub for the North West region, aimed at rivalling the new media cities emerging around the world. It will be known as Media City:UK and will aim to build on the success of the Lowry Centre and the Imperial War Museum in creating “a triangle of iconic buildings” on the waterfront of the Quays [www.mediacityuk.co.uk], with the hope of creating, amongst other things, a new home for the BBC.
Whilst these projects may not have been envisaged at the time of the development of the original plans for the area, it is clear that through placing a cultural emphasis on the key components of the plan, it has evolved to encourage further development of that nature. Had the Quays been centred upon a purely commercial or residential bias, the opportunities for a new media destination may not have been realised. As well as influencing future change, the cultural facilities at the heart of the regeneration must themselves allow for evolution to take place. They may not easily be able to predict how the area will be affected by change, but strategies which will enable them to plan for this, whether it be new demands from those living or working in the area or those from outside, visiting the cultural attractions, will aid in their longevity.
Chapter 5- Conclusion
Conclusion (1000 words)
Conclusion
The reasons for regeneration following the industrial revolution as we have seen, include the decline of the manufacturing industry and also the directly related urban environments that were built during this time, in particular in the North West of England. As the industry declined, so did the population in the area and with it the number of occupied houses. As the houses, warehouses and factories emptied, areas became run down and increasingly derelict, becoming more open to crime and pollution. This study has attempted to analyse the use of culture as a catalyst and driver of change in the processes of urban regeneration in the United Kingdom, and the resultant effects these processes ultimately impose on the built environments of our towns and cities.
Many years later as a response to this and drawing inspiration from around the world, local councils and private investors began to look to these areas to be improved, what resulted in many cases, was the development of industry in the form of creating jobs, these were through either shopping centres, purpose built office complexes, tourist attractions and leisure developments. Many businesses cited offices in these areas due to the cheaper rents than being based in the centre of nearby cities, also due to the much improved physical appearance and the ease of access; once the jobs and facilities had been created in these areas, along with it came the improved infrastructure and transport links which enabled commuters to attend work. This then made it possible for property developers to move in and create modern and architecturally significant residential buildings, as well as the once derelict terraced housing became desirable again and house prices increased. Whilst in some areas these factors followed on from each other in a natural sequence of events (not necessarily in the order mentioned above), other areas looked to them for inspiration and to create definite and planned models which assisted in long term plans for the future that successfully enabled them to become areas of prosperity and wealth as well as development opportunities.
One common factor that emerged from the early regeneration projects were the accelerated effects that the retail, leisure, commercial and tourist elements had on the speed and success of the developments.
A well known example is Urban Splash’s take on the terraced house; The Chimney Pot scheme has redeveloped 500 derelict back to back terraced houses, the key to their success lies in the remodelling of the interiors, by reshuffling the layouts, this project had great appeal with first time buyers and young professionals which will help improve the area of Langworthy in Manchester.
The emergence of culture as a stimulus for new growth in these zones of economic potential has seen an influx of new and improved cultural facilities, but being a relatively recent objective, there does seem to be a lack of data to support the use of culture in such an extensive fashion. Whether the redevelopment of an area has been solely a result of one of the three models defined; culture-led, a result of cultural regeneration or of culture and regeneration, remains to be debated as it is often difficult to distinguish. Regardless of which of these models the cases examined fit into, it is the case that regeneration in all cases has been as a result, to a lesser or greater extent, of at least one or a combination of cultural events or buildings. Even in cases were cultural buildings and the like were not the primary plan for development to occur, it may have followed at a later date and acted as a further catalyst, spurring on the improvement of an area.
After debating whether gentrification of an area has been as a result of culture led designs or not, it is easy to study an area and point out those things that have made the region successful. The City of Liverpool, celebrating the European Capital of Culture in 2008, has witnessed vast developments in the Albert Dock region. The successful development has essentially been a combination of making the built environment more visually appeasing, providing good quality accommodation but also the means to provide entertainment and culturally significant attractions such as that Tate Gallery, restaurants, bars and leisure facilities, all within close proximity to the city centre. However recent plans for a “Fourth Grace” project, to be built on the city’s waterfront because it could not be decided what exactly the iconic landmark would contain.
It is also the case for Salford Quays with the Imperial War Museum, Lowry centre and the Lowry Retail Outlet in addition to nearby Trafford Park with its numerous retail parks and football ground. Again the environmental improvements of cleaning the waterways, improvements to the local infrastructure and making the area attractive visually securing the investment from businesses and residents alike.
A conclusion could be made from the evaluation of this, and the other case studies discussed, that high profile, flagship projects in city centres and large scale schemes in areas such as the Salford Quays, are as much concerned with economic development than they are with regenerating the built environment through culture. This will undoubtedly meet opposition with communities that will hope that those responsible for implementing such programs, have the citizens and their outlooks on local culture at the heart of any change.
Through researching many different cases and drawing on a few from around the United Kingdom, it was actually impossible to find a region that had undergone significant redevelopment that did not have any evidence of some kind of cultural attraction, from art galleries to retail outlets and from museums to leisure developments, all of the cases had one thing in common: they had been impacted immensely by cultural influences. The ideal conclusion from a regeneration programme seeks to exploit both economic and cultural goals. Whilst the larger world cities such as London, Paris and Barcelona can sustain cultural based activities that perhaps do not respond to the locale of the intervention. The cases that were the most successful included those that had integrated the plans in to the local community, communicating plans and progress with local people. This requires a more focussed approach where the delivery of a cultural element and contents of the facility are directed towards local audiences and ensuring longevity in the future of the development.
Other examples including the Baltic galleries in Gateshead and the Tate Liverpool; two contemporary art galleries. The undoubted popularity of these institutions maybe down to the success that they are housed in refurbished and converted fabric that connects with the history and heritage within their respective locations.
Meanwhile, where regeneration is to be implemented in established locations that already have history, character and a culture of their own, it must be seen to respect, but also deliver vision, to bring about change that will aid in the social, economic and physical development of that place. Sustainability, in both design quality and integration terms, with respect to how such facilities function in these environments, is a fundamental factor that will remain relevant in the future development of regeneration as a whole. Hopefully more environments will come to benefit from the use of culture, in regenerating the urban centres in which we are now returning, to live and work, through adapting to further changes in the future and from acting on the lessons learnt in the previous use of culture-led regeneration.
A conclusion could be made from this study that culture-led has had a significant role to play with the vast process of regeneration. It is safe to say that the physical aspect of regeneration alone can not live up to the heavy scrutiny of a successful programme of regeneration. Culture-led plays a vital role of binding the different aspects of regeneration together. Without any one of these parts; Physical, Environmental, Culture, Community relations, the success of a project for example Liverpool will not reach the high expectations of the stakeholders involved. Culture-led can be seen as a catalyst for further development, if the right emphasis is placed on culture then it will catapult the regeneration programme forward.
References
Books
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Oxford: Clarendon
DETR, (1999) Towards an Urban Renaissance.
London: Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions.
Evans, G. (2001) Cultural Planning: An Urban Renaissance?
London: Routledge
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London: Polity Press
Jeffrey, P & Pounder, J. (2005) Urban Regeneration: A Handbook.
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Hobbes, T. (1651) Leviathan. In: Williams, R. (1988)
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Power, A. (1987) Property Before People: Management of Twentieth Century Council Housing.
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Berlin: Federal Cultural Foundation.
Roberts, P. (2005) Urban Regeneration: A Handbook.
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Turok, I & Edge, N. (1999) The Jobs Gap in Britain’s Cities: Employment Loss and Labour Market Consequences
Bristol: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Williams, R. (1988) Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society
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Journals
Balibrea, M. (2001) Urbanism, Culture and the Post-Industrial City: Challenging the Barcelona Model.
In: Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, vol. 2, no.2, p.187-210. 2001.
Charrette 3. (2004) New Models of Cultural Facilities.
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